A tax that uses added value as the tax base and is levied and collected at multiple stages of production. It is also called VAT, taking its English acronym. It is a type of sales tax, and a proportional tax rate is generally applied, but tax policies may apply zero tax rates or reduced tax rates to certain items, or provide tax exemptions at certain stages. In the tax classification of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), VAT is first classified as taxes on goods and services (classification item 5000). Subcategories of this are taxes on the production, sale, transfer, rental and delivery of goods, and the rendering of services (classification item 5100). Subcategories of this are general taxes (classification item 5110), taxes on specific goods and services (classification item 5120), and taxes not classifiable under 5110 and 5120 (classification item 5130). VAT is classified as a subcategory of general taxes under classification item 5111, but sales taxes (classification item 5112) and other general taxes on goods and services (classification item 5113) are also general taxes that are classified in parallel with VAT. Sales taxes are divided into single-stage and multi-stage sales taxes, depending on whether they are levied at a single stage or multiple stages, but value-added taxes are multi-stage sales taxes, and are levied at each stage of production. There are two methods for calculating value-added: the deduction method and the addition method. The former is calculated by subtracting the value of intermediate products used as raw materials from sales revenue, while the latter is calculated by adding wages, rent, interest, and profits paid by companies, and the tax rate is applied to the tax base of the value-added amount at each stage. Sales taxes can take various forms depending on the scope of the tax base, but the broadest tax base is sales revenue, and a multi-stage sales tax that uses this tax base is called a turnover tax. At the other extreme, there is a selective consumption tax that taxes individual goods and services. Value-added taxes use value added as the tax base, which economically corresponds to national income. In the broad sense, national income includes gross national product (GNP) and net national product (NNP), and can be classified into GNP type and NNP type depending on whether gross investment, which does not deduct depreciation, is included in the tax base, or whether depreciation is deducted and only net investment is used as the tax base. Furthermore, if we consider that the ultimate goal of the economy is consumption and that investment is merely a roundabout production for the efficient production of consumer goods and therefore inappropriate to be taxed, a consumption-type value-added tax that excludes even net investment, which does not include depreciation, from the tax base and uses only consumption as the tax base is preferable. A general consumption tax is basically a multi-stage sales tax with general consumption as the tax base, which is the same as the tax base of a consumption-based value-added tax. A drawback of a turnover tax is that it taxes sales, including the value of intermediate goods purchased at all stages, resulting in double or triple taxation of intermediate goods. Furthermore, it taxes sales at each production stage, including the tax amount up to the previous stage, resulting in double or triple taxation of taxes, which accumulates, leading to the drawback that companies implement vertical integration to reduce their tax burden. However, with a value-added tax, the tax amount paid at the previous stage is credited, eliminating this type of double taxation problem. In addition, many countries do not tax exports, but levy domestic taxes on imported goods to give them the same competitive conditions as domestically produced goods. This border adjustment, which was extremely difficult with a turnover tax, is easy with a value-added tax. In Japan, the value-added tax was proposed in the Shoup Recommendations as a local tax for prefectures, and was incorporated into the Local Tax Law in 1950 (Showa 25), but due to strong opposition from taxpayers, its implementation was repeatedly postponed, and it was finally abolished in 1954. In France, it was introduced in 1954, and became the model for the EC-type value-added tax, which was introduced as a common tax for the European Community (EC, which evolved into the European Union (EU) in 1993) by a European Economic Community (EEC) Council Directive in 1967. The EC-type VAT is known as the pre-tax credit method or invoice method, which calculates the VAT liability at each stage by deducting the tax amount already paid on inputs from the tax amount calculated on sales. This is called the invoice method because the tax credit on inputs is based on the tax amount stated on the delivery note or invoice. Under this system, mutual checks are carried out between taxpayers, which helps prevent tax evasion. Since then, the weight of VAT has increased considerably worldwide, with the OECD average ratios of VAT to total national taxes being 23.9%, 25.0%, and 31.7%, respectively, in 1975, 1995, and 2005. In the UK, where taxes on income and profits once accounted for a high proportion, the ratios were 13.4%, 20.6%, and 24.1%, respectively, and in Sweden they were 23.4%, 25.8%, and 32.6%, showing a remarkable increase in the ratio of general consumption taxes, mainly VAT. In Japan, all taxes that were considered for introduction under the name of general consumption tax or sales tax and were ultimately introduced under the name of consumption tax were essentially consumption-type value-added taxes. The tax rate, including local taxes, remains at 5%, which is much lower than the value-added tax rates in EU countries, and the ratio of Japan's consumption tax to total national tax is only 20.2% in the initial budget for fiscal 2005 (Heisei 17). However, due to the expected large reliance on government bonds and an increase in fiscal demand, it is conceivable that the consumption tax rate will be raised in the future and that it will become a more important tax. The VAT was a very simple system in which the amount calculated by multiplying the amount of purchases by a certain tax rate is deducted from the amount of tax calculated by multiplying the amount of sales by the same certain tax rate, but as the tax rate increases, the system may become considerably more complicated by the application of zero tax rates or reduced tax rates to necessities and the introduction of tax exemptions in order to mitigate its regressive nature, and there is a possibility that disputes will arise between taxpayers and tax authorities. [Masatoshi Hayashi] "Value Added Tax Theory" by Susumu Sato (1973, Tax Accounting Association)" "The Theory and Practice of Value Added Tax" by Hiroshi Chinen (1995, Tax Accounting Association)" [Reference item] | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
付加価値を課税標準として採用し、生産の多段階において賦課徴収する税。英語の頭文字をとりVATともよばれる。売上税sales taxの一種であり、一般的には比例税率が適用されるが、租税政策上、特定品目に対してはゼロ税率や軽減税率を適用したり、特定段階における免税措置を与えることもある。 経済協力開発機構(OECD)の租税分類では、付加価値税はまず財・サービスに対する税(分類項目5000)に分類される。その下位項目として生産、販売、移転、財の貸与と配達、サービスの供与に対する税(同5100)がある。さらにその下に一般税(同5110)、特定財・サービスに対する税(同5120)、5110と5120に分類不可能な税(同5130)がある。付加価値税は一般税の下位分類項目として5111に分類されるが、売上税(同5112)、財・サービスに対する他の一般税(同5113)も付加価値税と並列的に分類される一般税である。 売上税には、その賦課徴収する段階が単段階か多段階かにより、単段階売上税と多段階売上税との区別があるが、付加価値税は多段階売上税であり、生産の各段階ごとに課税される。付加価値の計算方法には控除法と加算法とがあり、前者は売上高から原料として用いられる中間生産物の価値を差し引いて算出され、後者は企業の支払った賃金、地代・家賃、利子および利潤を加算して算出するものであるが、各段階における付加価値額の課税標準に税率を掛けて課税される。 また、売上税は課税標準の範囲によりいろいろな形態をとりうるが、いちばん広い課税標準としては売上高があり、この課税標準を採用する多段階売上税は取引高税turnover taxとよばれる。他方の極には、個別の財・サービスを課税対象とする選択的消費税selective consumption taxがある。付加価値税は、付加価値を課税標準とするが、これは経済的には国民所得と一致する。広義の国民所得には、国民総生産(GNP)、国民純生産(NNP)などがあるが、減価償却にあたる部分を控除しない粗投資も課税標準に含めるか、あるいは減価償却は控除して純投資のみを課税標準にするかによって、GNP型とNNP型に分類できる。さらに、経済の最終目的は消費にあり、投資は単なる消費財を効率的に生産するための迂回(うかい)生産にすぎないから課税対象とするのは不適当であると考えるならば、減価償却を含まない純投資さえも課税標準から除き、消費のみを課税標準とする消費型の付加価値税のほうが望ましい。一般消費税というのは、基本的には消費一般を課税標準とする多段階売上税をさすが、これは消費型の付加価値税の課税標準と一致する。 取引高税の欠陥として、全段階で、仕入れた中間財の価値を含めた売上高に課税するから、中間財は二重、三重に課税されてしまう。さらに、前段階までの税額も含めた各生産段階の売上高に課税されるから、税に税が二重、三重に課されて累積し、企業は租税負担を軽減するために垂直的統合を実施するという欠陥があった。しかし付加価値税では、前段階において支払われた税額は税額控除されるから、この種の二重課税問題は解消する。また、多くの国々は輸出品には課税せず、輸入品には国産品と同じ競争条件を与えるために国内税を課税するが、取引高税の場合にはきわめて困難であったこの国境調整が、付加価値税の場合には容易である。 日本では、付加価値税は府県のための地方税としてシャウプ勧告において提案され、1950年(昭和25)に地方税法に取り入れられたが、納税者の反対が強かったため実施延期を重ね、1954年についに廃止となった。フランスでは1954年に導入され、1967年のヨーロッパ経済共同体(EEC)理事会指令によってヨーロッパ共同体(EC、1993年ヨーロッパ連合(EU)に発展)の共通税として導入されたEC型付加価値税のモデルとなった。 EC型付加価値税は、前段階税額控除方式あるいはインボイス方式として知られるが、これは、各段階における付加価値税の納税義務額を、売上げに対して計算される税額から、仕入れに対してすでに支払われた税額を控除する形で算定する方式である。この仕入れに対する税額控除が、納品書ないし仕送り状に記載された税額に基づいてなされるから、インボイス方式とよばれる。この制度のもとでは、納税者間に相互チェックが働き、脱税防止に役だつ。 その後、世界的に付加価値税の比重がかなり高くなってきており、1975年、1995年、2005年の国税総額に占める付加価値税の割合は、OECD平均値でそれぞれ23.9%、25.0%、31.7%と推移している。かつては所得や利潤に対する税が高い比率を占めていたイギリスはそれぞれ13.4%、20.6%、24.1%、スウェーデンは23.4%、25.8%、32.6%と、付加価値税を主とする一般消費税の比率が顕著に上昇した。 なお、日本で一般消費税あるいは売上税という名称で導入が検討され、消費税という名称で最終的に導入された税は、いずれも基本的にはこの消費型の付加価値税である。その税率が地方税も入れて5%という、EU諸国の付加価値税率よりずっと低い水準にとどまっていることもあるが、日本の消費税額の国税総額に占める比率は、2005年度(平成17)当初予算においては20.2%にとどまっている。 しかし、大幅な公債依存と財政需要の増大が予想されることから、将来は消費税の税率が引き上げられて、より重要な税となることが考えられる。付加価値税は売上高に一定税率を掛けて算出した税額から仕入額に同じ一定税率を掛けて算出した額を税額控除するという、きわめて単純な仕組みであったが、税率の上昇とともにその逆進的性格を緩和するために、必需品に対するゼロ税率や軽減税率の適用、免税措置の導入によってかなり複雑となる可能性があり、納税者と税務当局との間の紛争が生ずる余地はある。 [林 正寿] 『佐藤進著『付加価値税論』(1973・税務経理協会)』▽『知念裕著『付加価値税の理論と実際』(1995・税務経理協会)』 [参照項目] | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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