It is recognized that throughout the 4.6 billion years of geological time, there have been several periods when the climate was cold worldwide and glaciers developed in high latitudes and mountainous regions over a much wider area than they do today. These periods are generally called ice ages. At least three ice ages are well known: the latest Precambrian period, the Carboniferous to Permian periods of the Paleozoic era, and the Quaternary period of the Cenozoic era. In the Precambrian era, glacial deposits that indicate ice ages have been left behind even before the latest one. Notable ones are found in strata dating back about 2 billion years, and are well known around the Great Lakes in North America. The first great ice age was at the very end of the Precambrian era, and glacial deposits from this period have been found in many places around the world, including Europe, Africa, Australia, China, and Siberia, and date back about 700 million years. The second great ice age was from the Carboniferous to Permian periods, about 300 million years ago. Glaciers from this period are known from various parts of the Southern Hemisphere, including South America, South Africa, Madagascar, India, Australia, and Antarctica. It is believed that these continents were united in the Southern Hemisphere to form the supercontinent Gondwana during this period. In these areas, traces of the glaciers of that time carving into the bedrock remain, and from their direction, the state of the ice sheets before the breakup of Gondwana can be inferred. At that time, Gondwana was located at high latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere, and it is believed that the South Pole was located near the southern tip of South Africa. [Yoshiaki Matsushima] Quaternary Ice AgeCompared to these two glacial ages, the Quaternary glacial age is the most recent and has been studied in detail. Usually, when we say "glacial age," we mean the Quaternary glacial age (from about 2 million years ago to about 10,000 years ago). This glacial age is said to have been the largest glacial age in history, because cirques and glacial deposits remain in temperate regions that do not currently have glaciers, and fossils indicating a cold climate remain. Glaciers were not always present throughout the glacial age, but instead alternated between cold glacial periods in which glaciers advanced and expanded to mid-latitude regions, and warm interglacial periods in which glaciers were limited to the polar regions. Recent research on deep-sea sediments has revealed that there have been about seven cold periods with warm periods between them in the past 700,000 years. These periods have occurred very regularly, with cycles of about 100,000 years. The last glacial period (known as the Würm glacial period in Japan, but this name has fallen out of use worldwide) began about 100,000 years ago, and after two or three mini-warm periods, reached extreme cold 20,000 to 18,000 years ago. This was the coldest period of the last glacial period. Currently, about 10% of the land area is covered in ice, mainly in the polar regions, but at the time of maximum expansion in the Quaternary period, this figure reached more than 30%, and ice sheets expanded significantly, especially on each continent in the Northern Hemisphere. In Europe, the Gulf of Bothnia region of the Scandinavian Peninsula was located at the center of the ice sheet, where it was thickest and highest. The glacier that headed northwest from this glacier created the fjord valleys on the Norwegian coast, and the glacier that headed west crossed the North Sea and reached southern Britain and Ireland, and the ice sheet was huge, covering the plains of Northern Europe and extending to northwestern Siberia. The ice sheet of the last glacial period in North America was centered near Hudson Bay and covered a wide area from the Canada-US border on the Pacific side to New York on the Atlantic side. In addition to this, small ice sheets were found in various places such as the Alps, Karakoram, Himalayas, Tibet, and northeastern Siberia. In the Southern Hemisphere, ice sheets formed in the Kosciusko Plateau in Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and southern South America. Glaciers also formed in high mountains such as Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya in Africa. The ice sheets of Antarctica and Greenland were thicker and covered a larger area than they are today. During ice ages, water is frozen onto land as glaciers, causing a significant drop in sea level. The extent of the drop in sea level is estimated from traces of river channels left on the seabed and the distribution of sediments near the coastline, and it appears that it may have dropped by 100-130 meters during the coldest period of the last ice age. As a result, the Bering Strait became land, connecting North America and Eurasia. This Bering land bridge allowed the exchange of animal populations between the two continents and the migration of humans to the Americas. This drop in sea level also had a significant impact on the Japanese archipelago. [Yoshiaki Matsushima] Japan's Ice AgeAt that time, the Tsushima, Tsugaru, and Soya straits that connected the Sea of Japan to the open ocean became land or narrowed significantly, turning the Sea of Japan into an inland sea, through which flora and fauna from the continent entered. The paleogeography of the Japanese archipelago during the coldest period 20,000 years ago and the lowest sea level has been fairly well restored using many sources such as fossils and topography that tell the situation at that time, as well as carbon-14 dating and widespread tephra (volcanic debris) that determine the age. The amount of sea level drop at that time has been variously estimated, from about 140 meters to 80±5 meters, but a rough guideline would be about 100 meters. If the sea level had dropped by 100 meters, a significant area of the continental shelf around the Japanese archipelago would have become land. Hokkaido became connected to Karafuto (Sakhalin) and Kunashiri Island, and the Tsugaru Strait continued to exist, although it was narrow. Honshu was connected to Shikoku and Kyushu due to the Seto Inland Sea becoming land. A large area of western Kyushu also became land, but with a 100-meter drop in sea level, it was not yet connected to Tsushima, and the Tsushima Strait and Korea Strait narrowed and continued to exist. When the environment at that time was examined based on plant remains, pollen, glaciers, and periglacial landforms, the tree line in Hokkaido was 1,600 meters lower than it is today, and most of Hokkaido became tundra or forest tundra, a periglacial region. In central Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, the tree line was also lowered by 1,500 meters, and areas above that became periglacial regions. The annual average temperature dropped by 7 to 8 degrees Celsius, and the boundary between the subarctic forest and the cool temperate forest was in the central Kanto region in the lowlands, while the boundary between the cool temperate forest and the warm temperate forest moved south to near the southern tip of Kyushu. Among large mammals, mammoths migrated south to Hokkaido, but did not cross the Tsugaru Strait to reach Honshu. There was no longer any connection between Hokkaido and Honshu for medium-sized and small-sized animals at this time. The northern limit of Japanese macaques, Asiatic black bears, Japanese serows, moles, and water mice is the Shimokita Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture, while the southern limit of brown bears, sables, pikas, and chipmunks is the Oshima Peninsula in Hokkaido. This shows that the Brakeston Line as a biogeographical boundary was established in the Tsugaru Strait at this time. However, moose and brown bears invaded Honshu at this time. Many kinds of mammals can be found in Honshu, including Naumann's elephant, Yabe bighorn deer, Japanese deer, and moose, but by the end of this period, most large animals had become extinct. Meanwhile, the ocean conditions around the Japanese archipelago at this time were quite different from today. The Kuroshio Current, which currently flows eastward while meandering after leaving the coast of Honshu near the coast of Choshi, Chiba Prefecture, stopped near the southeast of Kyushu at that time, and the Oyashio Current, which currently flows south from Hokkaido to the coast of the Tohoku region, is thought to have flowed south to the Kii Peninsula. In the Sea of Japan, the inflow of ocean water accompanied by the Tsushima Current rapidly decreased from about 30,000 years ago to 20,000 years ago, and the Tsugaru Strait also became land, causing an inflow of fresh water thought to be from the Yellow River. As a result, the environment below the surface became stagnant, and the supply of oxygen was insufficient, causing the bottom water to become reduced. After that, the Tsugaru Strait opened and cold seawater from the northwest Pacific Ocean flowed in, and the surface water returned to the same salinity as the open ocean, and the stagnant state was resolved, but since the Tsushima Current had not yet flowed in, the ocean conditions were similar to those of the North Pacific. The ocean conditions were the same as they are today 10,000 years ago, when the Tsushima Current entered the area during the Holocene (Alluvial Epoch, present age). [Yoshiaki Matsushima] "Ice Ages" by Kunio Kobayashi and Yutaka Sakaguchi (1982, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Solving the Mysteries of the Ice Ages" by J. Imbrie and K.P. Imbrie, translated by Koizumi Itaru (1982, Iwanami Gendai Sensho)" ▽ "The Quaternary Period" by Hiroshi Naruse (1982, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "General Geology" by A. Holmes, translated by Ueda Seiya et al. (1984, University of Tokyo Press) [References] | | | |©Shogakukan "> Ice on the Gondwana continent during the Carboniferous and Permian periods... ©Shogakukan "> Northern Hemisphere glaciers at their maximum expansion during the Pleistocene… ©Shogakukan "> Geographical map of Japan from about 20,000 years ago Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
46億年に及ぶ地質時代を通じて、汎(はん)世界的に寒冷な気候となり、高緯度地方や山岳地域で現在よりもはるかに広く氷河の発達した時期が何回かあったことが認められている。この時期を一般に氷河時代という。先カンブリア時代最末期、古生代石炭紀からペルム紀(二畳紀)、新生代第四紀の少なくとも三つの氷河時代がよく知られている。 先カンブリア時代には、最末期より前にも氷河時代を示す証拠の氷河性堆積物(たいせきぶつぶつ)が残されている。その顕著なものは約20億年前の地層中にあって、北アメリカ五大湖周辺などでよく知られる。最初の大氷河時代は先カンブリア時代最末期であり、この時期の氷河性堆積物が、ヨーロッパ、アフリカ、オーストラリア、中国、シベリアなど世界的に広く各地でみいだされており、その年代は約7億年前である。2番目の大氷河時代は約3億年前の石炭紀からペルム紀である。この時期の氷河は、南アメリカ、南アフリカ、マダガスカル、インド、オーストラリア、南極大陸など南半球の各地から知られる。この時期、南半球にはこれらの大陸が一体となってゴンドワナ大陸をつくっていたと推定される。これらの地域には当時の氷河が岩盤を削った跡が残されていて、その方向から、ゴンドワナ大陸の分裂以前の氷床のようすが推測できる。当時のゴンドワナ大陸は南半球の高緯度に位置し、南極点が南アフリカ南端付近にあったと考えられている。 [松島義章] 第四紀の氷河時代これら二つの氷河時代に比べて、第四紀の氷河時代は、現在に続くもっとも新しい時代のため詳しく調べられている。普通、氷河時代とよぶときは第四紀の氷河時代(約200万年前より約1万年前まで)をさすことが多い。この氷河時代は、現在氷河のない温帯地方にもカールや氷河性堆積物が残されていたり、寒冷な気候を示す化石が残されていることから、史上もっとも大規模な氷河時代であったともいわれる。氷河時代は全体を通じて氷河がつねに発達していたのではなく、中緯度地域まで氷河が進出拡大した気候の寒冷な氷期と、両極地域にだけ氷河が限られた温暖な間氷期とが交互に訪れた。最近の深海底堆積物の研究によって、過去70万年の間に約7回の寒冷期とその間の温暖期とが存在したことが知られている。その繰り返しはきわめて規則的で、約10万年の周期でおこってきた。最後の氷期(日本ではビュルム氷期の名で知られるが、この名称は世界的には使われなくなった)は約10万年前ごろから始まり、2~3回の小温暖期を繰り返したのち、いまから2万~1万8000年前に極寒に達した。これが最終氷期の最寒冷期である。現在は両極地域を中心に陸地の面積の約10%が氷に覆われているが、第四紀の最大拡大期には30%以上に達し、とくに北半球の各大陸で氷床が著しく拡大した。 ヨーロッパでは、スカンジナビア半島のボスニア湾地域が氷床の中心に位置し、もっとも厚くしかも高くなっていた。この氷河から北西に向かった氷河は、ノルウェー海岸のフィヨルドの谷をつくり、西へ向かった氷河は北海を横切ってイギリス南部からアイルランドに達し、氷床は北ヨーロッパの平原を覆って北西シベリアまで広がる巨大なものであった。北アメリカにおける最終氷期の氷床は、中心がハドソン湾付近にあって、太平洋側のカナダ・アメリカ国境付近から大西洋側のニューヨーク付近に至る広い範囲を覆った。これ以外にも小さな氷床がアルプス、カラコルム、ヒマラヤ、チベット、シベリアの北東部など各地にみられた。南半球ではオーストラリアのコシアスコ高地やタスマニア、ニュージーランド、南アメリカ南部などで氷床が形成された。また、アフリカでもキリマンジャロやケニア山などの高山に氷河が形成された。南極大陸やグリーンランドの氷床は現在より厚く広い面積を占めていた。 氷期には水が氷河として陸上に固定されるため、著しい海面低下がおこる。海面低下の大きさを、海底に残された当時の河川の流路跡や海岸線付近の堆積物の分布から推定すると、最終氷期の最寒冷期に100~130メートルも低下したらしい。このためベーリング海峡は陸化し、北アメリカとユーラシア大陸が陸続きとなった。このベーリング陸橋を経由して、両大陸間の動物群の交流や、人類の南北アメリカ大陸への移動がおこった。この海面低下は日本列島にも重大な影響を及ぼした。 [松島義章] 日本の氷河時代当時、日本海と外洋とをつなぐ対馬(つしま)、津軽、宗谷などの海峡は陸化、あるいは著しく幅の狭い海峡となり、日本海が内陸海と化し、そこを経由して大陸の動植物の侵入がおこっている。この2万年前の最寒冷期かつ海面最低下期における日本列島の古地理は、当時の状況を物語る化石や地形など多くの資料と、その時代を決定する炭素14法(年代測定)、広域テフラtephra(火山砕屑(さいせつ)物)により、かなりよく復原されている。当時の海面低下量は約140メートルから80±5などさまざまに推定されているが、目安としておよそ100メートルとすることができよう。100メートルの海面低下が生じると日本列島周辺の大陸棚はかなりの面積にわたり陸化する。北海道は樺太(からふと)(サハリン)、国後(くなしり)島と陸続きとなり、津軽海峡は幅は狭いが存続していた。本州は瀬戸内海の陸化により四国、九州と接続する。九州の西方も広く陸化するが、100メートルの海面低下ではまだ対馬とは接続せず、対馬海峡と朝鮮海峡は幅が狭くなって存続したことになる。当時の環境を、植物遺体、花粉、氷河、周氷河地形などから検討すると、森林限界は北海道で現在より1600メートル低下して、北海道の大部分がツンドラないし森林ツンドラとなり、周氷河域であった。本州中部、四国、九州でも森林限界が1500メートルも低くなり、それ以高は周氷河地域となった。年平均温度では7~8℃の低下となり、亜寒帯林と冷温帯林の境界は、低地では関東中部にあり、冷温帯林と暖温帯林の境界が九州南端付近まで南下した。 大形哺乳(ほにゅう)動物では、北海道にはマンモスゾウが南下してきたが、津軽海峡を越えて本州には達しなかった。中形および小形の動物は、すでにこの時期には北海道と本州とでは関連がなかった。ニホンザル、ツキノワグマ、カモシカ、モグラ、カワネズミなどは青森県下北半島を北限とし、ヒグマ、クロテン、ナキウサギ、シマリスは北海道渡島(おしま)半島を南限としている。この時期には生物地理区界としてのブレーキストン線が津軽海峡に確立していたことを示す。しかしヘラジカ、ヒグマはこの時期には本州地域に侵入している。本州地域ではナウマンゾウ、ヤベオオツノシカ、ニホンジカ、ヘラジカなど多種類の哺乳動物がみられるが、この時期の末期には大形のものはほとんど絶滅した。一方、この当時の日本列島周辺の海況は現在とはかなり異なっていた。現在、千葉県銚子(ちょうし)沖付近で本州沿岸を離れ、蛇行しながら東流する黒潮は当時九州南東方付近に止まり、現在北海道から東北地方の沖合いにかけて南下する親潮が紀伊半島あたりまで南下していたと考えられる。日本海では、約3万年前以降2万年前に向かって、対馬海流に伴う外洋水の流入が急激に減じ、津軽海峡も陸化して黄河起源と考えられる淡水の流入が生じた。このため表層より下は停滞的環境に変わり、酸素の供給が不足して底層水が還元状態になった。その後、津軽海峡が開いて北西太平洋の寒冷な海水が流入し、これに伴い表層水も外洋と同じ塩分濃度に戻り、停滞的状態は解消されたが、まだ対馬海流が流入しないため、北太平洋と同じような海況となっていた。現在と同じ海況になったのは、完新世(沖積世、現世)に入って対馬海流が進入した1万年前のことである。 [松島義章] 『小林国夫・阪口豊著『氷河時代』(1982・岩波書店)』▽『J・インブリー、K・P・インブリー著、小泉格訳『氷河時代の謎をとく』(1982・岩波現代選書)』▽『成瀬洋著『第四紀』(1982・岩波書店)』▽『A・ホームズ著、上田誠也他訳『一般地質学』(1984・東京大学出版会)』 [参照項目] | | | |©Shogakukan"> 石炭紀―ペルム紀のゴンドワナ大陸上の氷… ©Shogakukan"> 更新世の最大拡大時における北半球の氷河… ©Shogakukan"> 日本の約2万年前の地理図 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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