Honoré de Balzac

Japanese: バルザック - ばるざっく（英語表記）Honoré de Balzac

French novelist. Born on May 20th in Tours, a city on the Loire River, as the eldest son of a divisional quartermaster. The title "de", meaning noble, was a false title he adopted after he became a writer. His father, who came from a farming family in the south of France, was a cheerful believer in the Enlightenment, interested in social issues and methods of longevity, and believed he would live to be 100 years old. However, his mother, who came from a merchant family in Paris and was more than 30 years younger than Balzac, had a cold relationship with him, and Balzac was sent to foster care and to the Oratorio boarding school in Vendome, so he received little love from his mother.

During his time at Vendome, from age 8 to 14, he suffered from loneliness, was ostracized by his classmates, and devoted himself to reading and daydreaming. Eventually, he became weak from excessive reading and was taken in by his parents. In 1814, he moved to Paris with his family, and the following year he entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Paris, working as a clerk at a law firm. However, he was unable to give up his ambition to become a writer, and was given two years' time to dedicate himself to writing the tragedy "Cromwell" in an attic on the Rue Lesdiguières, but it ended in failure. In 1820, he returned to his family, who had moved to the suburbs, and wrote eight full-length novels under pseudonyms, sometimes in collaboration with friends. However, as he later denied, they were all completely vulgar and poor works that imitated the absurd dark and sentimental novels that were popular at the time, and his attempt to gain financial independence was thwarted. In 1825, he tried his hand at publishing, but when that went into the red, he expanded into printing and type-founding, and was finally declared bankrupt. In order to repay the enormous debt of 53,000 francs, he returned to writing with all his might, and thus was born the greatest French novelist. However, due to his extravagant habits, this debt followed him for the rest of his life.

[Atsuyoshi Hiraoka]

The Age of Accumulation

His first work, The Owl Party (1829), a historical novel about the Breton peasant revolt during the Revolution, was influenced by W. Scott and the American novelist J. F. Cooper and was well received, followed by the satirical and humorous The Physiology of Marriage (1829), which, in contrast, also attracted attention and established his status as a writer. While frequenting high society and contributing humorous essays in the form of sketches of daily life to various newspapers and magazines, he rapidly published a diverse range of works, including the short story collection Scenes from Private Life (1830), which could be said to be the starting point of his unique realism, the philosophical allegory novel The Rough Skin (1831), the novel Louis Lambert (1832), which could be said to be an attempt to systematize the thoughts he had had since his boyhood, when he had written "Notes on Philosophy," and the humanitarian utopian novel The Country Doctor (1833). His prolific output during this period was almost superhuman; in addition to many short stories such as "The Priest of Tours" (1832), "Colonel Chabert" (1832), and "La Meride" (1835), he established the realist literature that could be called the prototype of the modern novel with long masterpieces such as "Eugénie Grandet" (1833), "The Quest for the Absolute" (1834), and "Father Goriot" (1835). The dramatic plots and love of hidden things that he learned from dark romantic novels, as well as his vigorous curiosity about the vulgar things of the real world, were beautifully fused with the author's rare visionary talent, absorbing his torrent of creative energy and expanding his fictional world to a scale comparable to the real world.

[Atsuyoshi Hiraoka]

Development of the Overall Title "The Human Comedy"

Balzac gave the title "Comédie humaine" to all his works after "The Owl Party" and divided them into three major parts: "Studies in Manners" which depict social phenomena as "effects", "Philosophical Studies" which pursue their causes, and "Analytical Studies" which investigate their principles. Of these, "Studies in Manners", which is the most voluminous, he further divided them into six "Scenes", such as "Scenes from Private Life", "Scenes from Provincial Life", and "Scenes from Parisian Life". He was obsessed with the ambition to make the whole of his works, including those he was about to write, into a history of the manners and customs of 19th century France, and after many revisions, he explained his plan in the preface to "Comédie humaine" (1842). In other words, following the suggestion of biologist Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, who assumed unity in the biological world, Balzac believed that human society also had "species" that were distinguished by class, occupation, character, and environment, and argued that the whole picture of society could not be grasped unless he depicted them thoroughly, as if competing with a family register.

However, the most groundbreaking technique he came up with was the technique of "reappearance of characters," which he first employed in "Father Goriot," in which he reappeared the protagonist of a previous work as a supporting character in a new work, or vice versa, in an attempt to weave a three-dimensional web of vertical and horizontal relationships between his works. As a result, the 91 works he left behind, while each one being an independent novel, always recall other works, and give the impression that they are organically positioned within a single world inhabited by the same 2,000 or so characters. The characters in his works before "Father Goriot" were also replaced with names for this reason, resulting in some discrepancies and contradictions in the system, but since it was a system that was gradually formed and developed along with the development of the world of "The Human Comedy," it contributed to giving a sense of pluralistic dynamism to the overall outlook on French society from the Restoration (1814) to the July Monarchy (1830-48), which is reproduced in the work.

Balzac, who was influenced by Swedenborg's mystical philosophy from a young age, also wrote the esoteric novel "Seraphita" (1835), in which the protagonist is both male and female. However, his ideology was based on the energy theory that desire and thought destroy life, and he liked to depict the fates of passionate characters whose life force is burned out by boundless intellectual pursuits (Louis Lambert), desire to invent (Balthasar Claesz), and paternal love (Father Goriot). In his tragic love novel "The Lilies of the Valley" (1836), written in opposition to Sainte-Beuve, Madame Morsoff loses her strength in chaste love. In "Cousin Bette" (1846), Baron Hulot kills his faithful wife after endless lust. Balzac himself is the best example of this observation, since he died exhausted from his boundless desire to create, but he also saw in money a symbol of the energy that influenced the trends of society, and he introduced various bankers and loan sharks to vividly depict the various conspiracies, schemes, and dramas of attack and defense that arose from the desire for money. Although he admired the aristocracy, dreamed of success, and spoke of royalist views in politics, he was able to incorporate a clear view of history that was later praised by Engels and others because he viewed the reality of a turbulent society from the perspective of critics, victims, or poor common people, such as the escaped prisoner Beautran, who plays a major role in his series of novels, "Disillusionments" (1837-43) and "The Rise and Fall of a Frolicsome Woman" (1838-47), and the protagonist of "Cousin Pons" (1847).

[Atsuyoshi Hiraoka]

A turbulent and eventful life

At the age of 22, Balzac fell in love with Mme de Berny, a married woman twice his age, and received her emotional and material support for nearly 10 years. He also had other relationships with women, but in 1832 he met Mme Eve Hanska, a Polish aristocrat, and made it his lifelong desire to marry her. Apart from occasional meetings, he devoted himself to corresponding with her, writing a huge number of letters. However, his health deteriorated due to repeated overwork and nonstop writing, and although he finally married her in 1850, he died on August 18, six months later.

Alongside his energetic creative endeavors, he traveled not only within France but also throughout Europe, published a personal magazine despite the failures of his youth, ran for office and the Academy, tried his hand at paper and lumber manufacturing, and even flirted with silver mining, all as an indomitable businessman, but he never achieved success. However, the nourishment that these experiences of failure brought to his writing must have been immeasurable. The influence of his writing on Flaubert, Baudelaire, Dostoevsky, and Proust is also immeasurable.

[Atsuyoshi Hiraoka]

"The Complete Works of Balzac, 26 volumes, translated by Mizuno Ryo et al. (1973-76, Tokyo Sogensha)" ▽ "A Study of Balzac - The Establishment of the 'La comédie humaine', by Yasushi Masao (1960, Tokyo Sogensha)" ▽ "Balzac - From the common areas of the 'La comédie humaine', by Terada Toru (1967, Gendai Shichosha)" ▽ "On Balzac, by Alain, translated by Iwase Takashi and Kato Naohiro (1968, Fuyukisha)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

フランスの小説家。5月20日、ロアール川沿いの都市トゥールに師団糧秣(りょうまつ)部長の長男として生まれる。貴族を意味するdeは作家になってから僭称(せんしょう)したもの。南仏の農家出身の父は、社会問題や長寿法に関心をもち、100歳まで生きると信じていた愉快な啓蒙(けいもう)思想信奉者だったが、パリの商家出の母が30歳以上も年下だったために、夫婦仲が冷たく、バルザックは里子に出されたり、バンドームのオラトリオ会派寄宿学校に入れられたりして、母の愛を受けることが少なかった。

　8歳から14歳までのバンドーム時代は孤独に苦しみ、級友からも仲間外れにされて読書と夢想に没頭し、やがて濫読のため衰弱して両親に引き取られた。1814年家族とともにパリに移り、翌年パリ大学法学部に入学、かたわら法律事務所の書記を勤めた。しかし文学への志を捨て切れず、2年間の猶予を得て、レズディギエール街の屋根裏部屋で悲劇『クロムウェル』の執筆に精魂を傾けたが、失敗に終わった。20年、郊外に移った家族のもとに帰り、仮名で、ときには友人と合作の形もとり、八編の長編を書いたが、後年彼も否認したとおり、当時流行の荒唐無稽(むけい)な暗黒小説、感傷小説を模倣したまったく通俗的な駄作ばかりで、それで経済的な独立をかちとろうとした企図も挫折(ざせつ)した。25年には出版業に手を出し、これが赤字になると印刷業、活字鋳造業にまで間口を広げて、最後に破産宣告を受けた。その際の5万3000フランという莫大(ばくだい)な負債を返済するため、背水の陣を敷いて創作に戻ったおかげで、フランス最大の小説家が誕生したわけだが、浪費癖のため、この負債は一生彼に付きまとった。

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蓄積の時代

第一作『ふくろう党』（1829）は、W・スコットとアメリカの小説家J・F・クーパーの影響下に、大革命時代のブルターニュ農民の反乱を描いた歴史小説だが、かなりの好評を博し、ついで、それと対照的に皮肉でふざけた『結婚生理学』（1829）も話題となったことが、作家としての地位を確定した。社交界に出入りし、各種新聞雑誌に風俗スケッチ的戯文を寄稿しながらも、彼独特のリアリズムの出発点ともいうべき短編集『私生活情景』（1830）、哲学的寓意(ぐうい)小説『あら皮』（1831）、「哲学ノート」などを書いた少年時代以来の思索の体系化の試みともいうべき小説『ルイ・ランベール』（1832）、人道主義的なユートピア小説『田舎(いなか)医者』（1833）などといった多彩な作品群を矢つぎばやに発表した。この時期の多産な仕事ぶりは超人的といってよく、『トゥールの司祭』（1832）、『シャベール大佐』（1832）、『海辺の悲劇』（1835）など多くの短編のほかに、『ウージェニー・グランデ』（1833）、『絶対の探究』（1834）、『ゴリオ爺(じい)さん』（1835）などの力作長編で近代小説の祖型ともいうべきリアリズム文学を確立した。ロマンチックな暗黒小説に学んだ劇的な筋立てや背後に隠されたものへの偏愛、現実社会の卑俗な事象への旺盛(おうせい)な好奇心が、作者のたぐいまれな幻視的資質のなかでみごとに融合し、彼の奔流のような創作エネルギーを吸収して、現実世界にも匹敵する規模へとその虚構世界を成長肥大させていったのだった。

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総題『人間喜劇』の展開

そこでバルザックは、『ふくろう党』以後の全作品に『人間喜劇』Comédie humaineという総題を与え、社会事象を「結果」として描く「風俗研究」、その原因を追求する「哲学研究」、原理を究明する「分析研究」に三大別し、なかでもいちばん分量の多い「風俗研究」は、さらに「私生活情景」「地方生活情景」「パリ生活情景」など六つの「情景」に分類した。そして、これから書く作品をも含めた総体を19世紀フランスの風俗史たらしめようとする野心に取りつかれ、たびたびの変更を経て、『人間喜劇』序文（1842）でそのプランを説明している。すなわち、生物界に統一性を想定した生物学者ジョフロア・サンチレールに示唆され、バルザックは、人間社会にも階級、職業、性格、環境で区別される「種」が存在すると考え、戸籍簿と競争するようにそれらを描き尽くすのでなければ、社会の全体像を把握できないと主張した。

　しかし、とりわけ彼が考案した画期的な手段は、『ゴリオ爺さん』で初めて採用した「人物再出」の手法で、先行する作品の主人公を新しい作品の脇役(わきやく)的人物として、あるいはその逆の形で再登場させ、作品間に縦横の立体的関係の網目を織り上げようとするものだった。その結果、彼が書き残した91編の作品は、それぞれ独立した小説でありながら、かならず他の作品を想起させ、同じ2000人余の登場人物が住む一つの世界の内部に有機的に位置づけられるという印象を与える。『ゴリオ爺さん』以前の作品の登場人物も、そのため名前を取り替えられ、体系として多少の食い違い、矛盾を生じたが、『人間喜劇』の世界の生成発展とともに徐々に形成され整備されていった体系であるだけに、そこに再現された、王政復古（1814）から七月王政（1830～48）に至るフランス社会の総括的な展望に多元的な力動感を与えるのに貢献した。

　若いときからスウェーデンボリらの神秘哲学の影響を受けたバルザックは、また、主人公が男女両性を具有する秘義小説『セラフィータ』（1835）を書いたが、思想的にはむしろ、欲望すること、思考することが生命を破壊するというエネルギー説を基調とし、無際限な知的探究心（ルイ・ランベール）、発明欲（バルタザール・クラース）、父性愛（ゴリオ爺さん）などのために生命力を燃え尽きさせる情熱的人物の運命を好んで描く。サント・ブーブに対抗して書いた悲痛な恋愛小説『谷間の百合(ゆり)』（1836）のモルソフ夫人は貞潔な恋のために力尽きる。『従妹(いとこ)ベット』（1846）のユロ男爵は、果てしない好色のあげくに、貞淑な妻を絶命させる。作者バルザック自身、果てしない創作欲に精力を使い果たして死ぬから、この観察の最良の実例となるわけだが、彼はまた、金銭のうちに社会の動向を左右するエネルギーの象徴をみ、各種の銀行家、高利貸を登場させ、金銭欲から発したさまざまな陰謀、画策、攻防のドラマを活写した。貴族にあこがれ、立身を夢みて、政治的には王党派的見解を口にしたが、のちにエンゲルスらにたたえられる透徹した史観を盛り込みえたのも、連作長編『幻滅』（1837～43）と『浮かれ女盛衰記』（1838～47）で活躍する脱獄囚ボートランや『従兄(いとこ)ポンス』（1847）の主人公のように、批判者、犠牲者、あるいは貧しい庶民の視点から、激動する社会の実相を見据えたからだと思われる。

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激動・波瀾の生涯

22歳のとき、倍も年上の人妻ベルニー夫人Mme de Bernyと恋に陥り、10年間近くも彼女から精神的、物質的援助を受けたバルザックは、ほかにも女性遍歴があったが、1832年ポーランドの大貴族ハンスカ夫人Mme Eve Hanskaを知り、彼女と結婚することを生涯の念願とした。そして、たまの逢瀬(おうせ)のほかは文通に終始し、膨大な量の書簡を書き残した。しかし、重なる過労と休みない執筆のために健康を害し、1850年になってやっと彼女と結婚したものの、半年後の8月18日に死亡した。

　精力的な創作活動のかたわら、フランス国内ばかりでなくヨーロッパ各地を旅行して回り、青年時代の失敗にも懲(こ)りずに個人雑誌を発行してみたり、代議士やアカデミーに立候補するかと思うと、製紙や製材業に手を出したり、銀山採掘に色気をみせたりする不屈の事業家気どりであったが、成功したものは一つもない。だが、そうした破綻(はたん)の経験が彼の文学にもたらした栄養は計り知れないものがあろう。彼の文学がフロベールやボードレールやドストエフスキーやプルーストに与えた影響も計り知れない。

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『水野亮他訳『バルザック全集』全26巻（1973～76・東京創元社）』▽『安士正夫著『バルザック研究――「人間喜劇」の成立』（1960・東京創元社）』▽『寺田透著『バルザック――「人間喜劇」の平土間から』（1967・現代思潮社）』▽『アラン著、岩瀬孝・加藤尚宏訳『バルザック論』（1968・冬樹社）』

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