Prostitution - baishun

Japanese: 売春 - ばいしゅん

Prostitution is the act of engaging in sexual relations and providing sexual services to an unspecified partner in exchange for compensation. The specific forms of prostitution have changed significantly throughout history.

[Shigeru Yamate]

Prostitution around the world

The oldest form of prostitution is temple prostitution. In ancient India, bayaderes (dancers) offered themselves to worshippers, but they were divided into devadasis, young girls from the upper class who served temples and were raised to be dancers, and natuni, girls from the lower class who were made professional dancers, and the latter engaged in prostitution. Similar customs existed in ancient Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, Persia, and other places. In ancient Greece, the forms of prostitution diversified. In Athens, there were high-class prostitutes called hetailes who discussed literature and politics, concubines who served the master and his wife, relatively high-class prostitutes called auletrides, and low-class prostitutes called dicteriades. Low-class prostitutes were public prostitutes who lived in a block near Athens. These prostitutes were made up of traded slaves, prisoners of war, kidnapped girls, and girls abandoned by citizens. There are similar records in Southeast Asia. In ancient Rome, there were both public and private prostitutes, and it is said that in its heyday, male homosexuality was practiced, prostitutes paraded around in lavish processions, and prostitutes provided massages in public baths.

In medieval Europe, prostitution was condemned, but in reality the public prostitution system was protected and taxes were collected. Large-scale prostitute corps accompanied the armies during wars such as the Crusades. Also, women who found themselves in financial difficulty due to the collapse of the rural economy turned to prostitution, gathering in cities such as Leipzig, Frankfurt, and Lyon where international fairs were held. At the imperial court, troubadours prostituted themselves to noblewomen.

In modern times, prostitution became popular as capitalism developed. Sex was commercialized, and the daughters of farmers and workers who struggled to make ends meet became prostitutes to meet the demand. It is estimated that there were 75,000 prostitutes in London in 1777, but this number increased to 160,000 in 1840 and 300,000 by 1860. Meanwhile, from the end of the 15th century, venereal disease (syphilis) that the sailors of Columbus's crew brought back from the Americas spread throughout Europe and became a social problem. Thus, the issue of prostitution came to be taken up as a triple problem of poverty, sexual morality, and venereal disease.

Measures against the problem of prostitution have been taken by churches and the state, but from the 19th century to the 20th century, religious and humanitarian movements to abolish and prevent prostitution were active, such as by Christian organizations such as the Salvation Army and women's liberation groups, and laws banning prostitution were enacted one after another in various countries. However, "undercover prostitution" continued to exist in all countries.

[Shigeru Yamate]

Prostitution has spread throughout the world over time, along with the expansion of trade, colonial rule, and the establishment of military bases. The rapid increase in prostitution in 19th-century Europe was also concentrated in large cities and around military ports, but after World War II, "base prostitution," which catered to the demand of American soldiers stationed there, became a common phenomenon throughout the country, particularly in East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South America. The social movement against prostitution, which often coincides with modernization and the rise of the middle class, became particularly noticeable in the second half of the 20th century, when East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South America were liberated from colonial rule and caught up in the trend of international economic development.

In Islamic societies, particularly in the Middle East, acts that constitute prostitution are forbidden by holy scriptures and carry serious legal and religious penalties.

[Kaoru Aoyama]

Japanese prostitution

In ancient Japan, temple prostitution was practiced, such as prostitution by shrine maidens (miko) and prostitution in temple towns. There was also prostitution for travelers, such as the wandering women (ukareme) described in the Manyoshu and the courtesans at the wharves of Murotsu and Kanzaki (Hyogo Prefecture). It is said that the public prostitution system was established in the Kamakura period. With the establishment of feudal society, brothels were formed in Shimabara in Kyoto and Yoshiwara in Edo, and courtesans were officially recognized. There were classes of courtesans, and among them, oiran (courtesans) were high-class courtesans who excelled in the arts and culture, and whose main customers were nobles, samurai, and wealthy merchants. Private prostitution was prohibited, but in reality, yahochi (night hawks), yotaka (night hawks), and tsujigimi (night hawks) increased. Prostitution was also practiced by town geisha and bathhouse girls (yuna). In small local towns along the highway, prostitution by women working as hostesses at inns was tolerated.

After the Meiji Restoration, the Prostitute Emancipation Law was issued in 1872 (Meiji 5), and it seemed as if licensed prostitutes would be liberated. However, in reality, brothels continued to exist under the pretext of renting space to free prostitutes, and prostitution continued to be openly practiced under the constraints of loans in advance and indentured servitude. Furthermore, prostitution by geisha, who were originally distinct from prostitutes, also became common, and prostitution spread to female cafe employees (called "maidens") and employed waitresses at restaurants. Also, from the Edo period until World War II, there were prostitutes called "karayuki-san" who went from Japan to Singapore, which was a trading hub at the time, to engage in prostitution. During World War II, prostitution was organized by sending "comfort women" to the battlefield to engage in prostitution for Japanese soldiers. Many of the "comfort women" were forcibly taken from colonies, and the compensation in military currency was small and became worthless after the war, leading the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNHCR) to point out that it was a form of "modern slavery." After the war, "comfort facilities" were established in Japan for the occupying forces, and many women who had lost their husbands in the war came to work there.

[Shigeru Yamate and Kaoru Aoyama]

Current state of prostitution

In Japan, the Anti-Prostitution Law was enacted in May 1956. The purpose of this law was mainly to prohibit the public prostitution system and human trafficking, to crack down on exposed street prostitutes, and to protect and rehabilitate girls who are at risk of prostitution. Although it prohibits "sexual intercourse with an unspecified partner in exchange for payment," it does not penalize simple prostitution in which payment is received for sexual acts, or individuals making a living from it. There is also no definition of "sexual intercourse." As a result, open brothel management in former red-light districts (areas where prostitutes congregate) disappeared, but even today, various forms of prostitution (i.e., business activities providing sexual services) are still actively carried out in the "sex entertainment industry" approved by the Law Concerning the Control and Proper Management of Amusement and Amusement Businesses (enacted in 1948).

It is said that prostitutes are becoming more diverse, including high school students, university students, and housewives, and their motives are also diversifying, ranging from curiosity and earning pocket money to easing loneliness and raising funds for school fees and living expenses. In the 1990s, the trend of calling prostitution of young women, such as junior high and high school students, "compensated dating," and the spread of prostitution to young men in the form of hosts, etc., became social problems.

On the other hand, from the 1980s to the 1990s, attention was focused on prostitution by women who had come to work from developing countries, and on the existence of prostitutes exploited by organized crime. In response, the Japanese government, which was considering ratifying the Protocol against Trafficking in Persons, which complements the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime that came into force in 2003, revised the Penal Code in 2005 to create a new crime of human trafficking. As a result, the prevention of prostitution began to be addressed from the perspective of international human trafficking as well.

According to the 2012 report on forced labor published by the International Labor Organization (ILO), approximately 21 million people around the world are forced to work against their will, of which 4.5 million (22%) are forced into sexual exploitation.

[Kaoru Aoyama]

From around 1980, the number of people going on "prostitution tours" to Asian countries increased, and the majority of these tours were Japanese men, who were criticized worldwide. Child prostitution was particularly problematic, and according to the 2000 World Population Report (United Nations Fund for Population Activities, UNFPA), 2 million girls were forced to work in the sex industry every year. This led to the activities of international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) with the aim of eradicating child prostitution among tourists to Asia. The International Campaign to End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT), which began its activities in 1991, had organizations from over 70 countries participating as of 2012.

Measures to prevent and crack down on child prostitution have been implemented in Japan as well, and the Law Concerning the Punishment of Child Prostitution and Child Pornography (Law No. 52 of 1999) was enacted in May 1999. In addition, some local governments have enacted "Youth Protection and Development Ordinances" and other laws that prohibit prostitution of minors under the age of 18 in addition to the law.

Prostitution, in which sexual relations, which are said to be the deepest human relationships, are traded as a commodity, is not only a hazard of sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS (HIV infection), but is also considered to be a problem that concerns personality and human dignity.

[Shigeru Yamate and Kaoru Aoyama]

However, there is also a movement, mainly in Europe, Asia-Pacific, and South America, to have prostitution recognized as legitimate work by society, which has been expanding globally since the 1980s. The movement aims to reduce discrimination and exploitation of prostitutes (husbands) and ensure bargaining power and safety by obtaining rights as workers, including those who have no other means of earning a living and those who choose to engage in prostitution. As a result, by the 2010s, prostitution had been legalized (subject to legal regulations specific to prostitution) or decriminalized (subject to the same legal regulations as other labor) in the Netherlands, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, India, South American countries, and the US state of Nevada. The background to the legalization and decriminalization of prostitution is said to be the judgment of each government that it is more effective to have the sex industry as an ally in preventing AIDS and human trafficking than to crack down on it, and the expectation of tax revenue.

Also, while prostitution is not a crime, Sweden was the first country to make buying prostitution a crime, enacting the law in 1999, followed by Norway and Iceland.

[Kaoru Aoyama]

"A 3000-Year History of Prostitution" by Nakayama Taro (1956, Nichibunsha)" ▽ "Prostitution" by Kanzaki Kiyoshi (1974, Gendaishi Publishing Association)" ▽ "The Sad History of Japanese Women" by Kaneichi Tsutomu (1980, Gendaishi Publishing Association)" ▽ "A Cultural History of Courtesans - Women of the Party" by Saeki Junko (1987, Chuokoron-Shinsha)" ▽ "A Social History of Prostitution - From the Ancient Orient to the Present" by V. Bouleau et al., translated by Kagawa Dan et al. (1991, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "Prostitution - The Social Structure of Sexual Labor and the International Economy" by T.D. Thurn, translated by Tanaka Noriko and Yamashita Akiko (1993, Akashi Shoten)" ▽ "The Women's Human Rights Asian Tribunal - Judging Human Trafficking, the Comfort Women Issue, and Prostitution in the Military Bases" edited by the Women's Human Rights Committee (1994, Akashi Shoten)" ▽ "The Current State of Anti-Prostitution Measures," compiled by the Prime Minister's Office (1997, Printing Bureau of the Ministry of Finance)" ▽ "The History of Sexuality, by Yuki Fujime (1997, Fuji Publishing)" ▽ "The Sociology of Prostitution, by J.G. Mancini, translated by Shigeru Juri (2000, Hakusuisha)" ▽ "Sex for Sale: Fieldwork on Prostitution, Pornography, Legal Regulation, and Support Groups, by R. Weitzer, translated by Miki Kishida (2004, Pot Publishing)" ▽ "Survey of Sex Worker Attitudes: The Occupational Attitudes of 126 People, by Yukiko Kaname and Nozomi Mizushima (2005, Pot Publishing)" ▽ "Who are 'sex workers'? - Structure and experiences of migration, sex work, and human trafficking, by Kaoru Aoyama (2007, Otsuki Shoten)" ▽ "The Last Red Light District, by Ritsuko Inoue "Tobita" (2011, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "Sandakan Brothel No. 8 by Tomoko Yamazaki (Bunshun Bunko)" ▽ "This is what Yoshiwara was like -- the history of the women of the brothels in the Showa period by Toshiko Fukuda (Chikuma Bunko)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

対償を受け、不特定の相手に対して、性関係をもち性サービスを提供すること。具体的な売春の形態は、歴史とともに大きく変化している。

［山手　茂］

世界の売春

もっとも古い形態は、寺院売春temple prostitutionである。古代インドでは、バヤデーレ（舞姫）が礼拝者に身をまかせたが、これは、上流階級の幼女が寺院に仕えて舞姫に育てられるデワダーシスと、下層の娘が職業舞姫にされるナーチュニとに分かれ、後者が売春を行った。古代エジプト、フェニキア、アッシリア、ペルシアなどにも同様な風習があった。古代ギリシアにおいては、売春の形態は多様化した。アテナイ（アテネ）には、文学や政治を論じる高級娼婦(しょうふ)ヘタイレ、主人夫婦に仕える妾(しょう)コンクビネス、比較的高級な売春婦アウレトリデス、下級売春婦ディクテリアデスなどがいた。下級売春婦は、アテナイ近郊の一郭に居住させられる公娼であった。これらの売春婦は、売買奴隷のほか、捕虜、さらわれた女子、市民の捨てた女子などからなっていた。東南アジアでも類似の記録がある。古代ローマにも、公娼と私娼があり、最盛期には男色が行われたり、売春婦が豪華な行列で練り歩いたり、共同浴場でマッサージを行う売春婦が現れたりしたといわれている。

　中世ヨーロッパでは、売春は非難されたが、現実には公娼売春制度は保護され、徴税された。十字軍遠征など戦争の際には、大規模な売春婦部隊が従軍した。また、農村経済の崩壊などのため生活困難に陥った女子は売春婦になり、国際的大市が開かれるライプツィヒ、フランクフルト、リヨンなどに集まった。宮廷では吟遊詩人たちが貴婦人たちに売春をしていた。

　近代に入ると、資本主義が発達するとともに売春が盛んになった。性が商品化され、生活困難な農民や労働者の娘は、需要に応じて売春婦になった。ロンドンの売春婦は、1777年には7万5000人であったが、1840年には16万人、1860年には30万人に増加したと推計されている。他方、15世紀末からコロンブス一行の水夫たちがアメリカ大陸からもち帰った性病（梅毒）が、ヨーロッパ各国に広がり社会問題化した。こうして、売春問題は、貧困問題と性道徳と性病との三重の問題として大きく取り上げられるようになった。

　売春問題に対する対策は、教会や国家によって行われてきたが、19世紀から20世紀にかけては、救世軍をはじめとするキリスト教団体や女性解放団体による宗教的、人道的な廃娼・売春防止運動が活発になり、各国で次々に売春禁止法が制定されてきた。しかしながら、「もぐり売春」は各国とも依然として行われていた。

［山手　茂］

　売春は、世界各地で交易の拡大と植民地支配、軍事基地の設置とともに、時代を追って広がっていった。19世紀ヨーロッパにおける売春の急増もまた大都市および軍港周辺に集中していたが、第二次世界大戦を経て、とくに東アジアと東南アジア、南米では、駐留アメリカ軍将兵の需要に応じた「基地売春」が各地に共通の現象となった。近代化、あるいは中産階級の勃興と時期を同じくすることが多い売春防止の社会的気運も、東アジア、東南アジア、南米では、植民地支配から解放されて国際経済開発の潮流に巻き込まれる20世紀後半に、とくに目だっている。

　中東をはじめとするイスラム社会では、売春と認められる行為は聖典によって禁止されており、重い法的・宗教的罪を負う。

［青山　薫］

日本の売春

日本においては、古代には神社の巫女(みこ)の売春、門前町の売春など、寺院売春が行われていた。また、『万葉集』にみられる遊行女婦(うかれめ)や、室津(むろつ)・神崎(かんざき)（兵庫県）など船着場の遊君など、旅行者を相手にした売春もあった。鎌倉時代には公娼制度が確立したといわれる。封建社会の確立に伴い、京都の島原、江戸の吉原などに遊廓(ゆうかく)が形成され、遊女(ゆうじょ)が公認された。遊女には階層があり、なかでも花魁(おいらん)は芸事と教養に秀で、公家や武家、豪商をおもな顧客とする高級遊女であった。私娼は禁止されたが、実際には夜発(やほち)、夜鷹(よたか)、辻君(つじぎみ)なども増加した。また、町芸者、湯女(ゆな)などの売春も行われた。街道筋の地方小都市では旅籠(はたご)屋の飯盛女(めしもりおんな)の売春が黙認されていた。

　明治維新ののち、1872年（明治5）娼妓(しょうぎ)解放令が出され、公娼は解放されるかにみえた。しかし、実際は自由営業の娼妓に場所を貸すという名目で遊廓は存続し、前借金、年季奉公によって拘束された売春が公然と行われ続けた。さらに、娼妓と一線を画していた芸妓の売春も一般化し、カフェーの女性従業員（「女給」とよばれた）や料理屋の雇仲居(やとな)にも売春が広がった。また、江戸時代から第二次世界大戦前まで、日本から当時貿易の拠点であったシンガポールなどへ売春に行った「からゆきさん」とよばれた売春婦がいた。第二次世界大戦中には、従軍「慰安婦」を戦地に送って日本軍将兵を対象に行わせる売春が組織された。「慰安婦」には植民地から強制連行された人が多く、軍票による対価は少額だったうえ戦後無価値になったなどの理由から、後に国連人権委員会United Nations Commission on Human Rights（UNHCR）によって「現代の奴隷制」の一形態であったと指摘されている。戦後には、日本国内で占領軍将兵向けの「慰安施設」がつくられ、戦争で夫を亡くした女性たちが多く働くことになった。

［山手　茂・青山　薫］

売春の現状

日本では1956年（昭和31）5月に売春防止法が制定された。この法律の目的は、おもに公娼制度と人身売買の禁止、露出した街娼の取り締まり、売春を行うおそれのある女子の保護更生に置かれているので、「対償を受け、不特定の相手方と性交すること」を禁止してはいるものの、単に性行為によって対償を受ける単純売春や、個人がそのことによって生計を立てること自体に対しては罰則がない。また、「性交」の定義もない。このため、旧赤線区域（集娼地域）における公然とした娼家経営は消滅したが、現在でも風俗営業等の規制及び業務の適正化等に関する法律（昭和23年制定）によって認可された「性風俗産業」において、依然としてさまざまな形の売春＝性サービスを供する営業行為が盛んに行われている。

　売春を行う者も、高校生、大学生、主婦など、幅広くなってきているといわれ、その動機も、好奇心や小遣い稼ぎから、孤独を紛らすため、学費や生活費をねん出するためなど多様化している。1990年代には、中学生、高校生など低年齢の女性の売春を「援助交際」と称する風潮や、若い男性にもホストなどの形態で売春が広がっていることが社会問題となった。

　他方、1980年代から1990年代にかけて、開発途上国から出稼ぎにきた女性の売春や、暴力団に搾取されている売春女性の存在が注目された。そこで、2003年（平成15）に発効した国連国際組織犯罪防止条約を補完する人身取引禁止議定書の批准も視野に入れた日本政府は、2005年に刑法を改正し人身取引罪を新設した。このことによって、売春防止が国際的な人身取引の側面からも図られるようになった。

　国際労働機関International Labour Organization（ILO）が2012年に発表した「強制労働に関する報告書」によると、世界中で約2100万人が自分の意思に反した労働を強要されており、そのうち450万人（22％）が性的搾取を強いられているという。

［青山　薫］

　1980年ごろからは、アジア諸国への「買春(かいしゅん)ツアー」参加者が増加し、その多数を占める日本人男性が世界的に非難されていた。なかでも児童買春（子ども買春）はとくに問題視され、2000年の『世界人口白書』（国連人口基金United Nations Fund for Population Activities＝UNFPA）によると、毎年200万人の女児が性産業で働かされていた。そこで、アジアへの観光客による児童買春の根絶を目的とした国際的な非政府組織（NGO）の活動が行われるようになった。1991年（平成3）から活動を開始した「アジア観光における子どもの買春を根絶するための国際キャンペーン」The International Campaign to End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism（ECPAT(エクパット)）には、2012年時点で世界70か国以上の団体が参加している。

　日本国内でも児童買春防止・取締り対策が進められるようになり、1999年5月には児童買春児童ポルノ処罰法（平成11年法律第52号）が制定された。また、地方自治体のなかには「青少年保護育成条例」などを制定して、法律とは別に、18歳未満の青少年に対する買春を禁止しているところもある。

　もっとも深い人間関係ともいわれる性関係が商品として取引される売春は、AIDS(エイズ)（HIV感染症）などの性感染症の危険にとどまらず、人格や人間の尊厳にかかわる問題とも考えられている。

［山手　茂・青山　薫］

　しかし一方で、ヨーロッパ、アジア太平洋、南米諸国を中心に、売春に従事する人びとによる売春を正当な労働として社会に認めさせようという運動もあり、1980年代からグローバルに展開されてきている。ほかに生活の糧を得る手立てがない人も好んで売春をする人も含め、労働者としての権利を獲得することで、売春婦（夫）に対する差別や搾取を軽減し、交渉力と安全を確保しようというものである。その影響もあって、2010年代までに、オランダ、ドイツ、オーストラリア、ニュージーランド、インド、南米各国、アメリカのネバダ州などで、売春が合法化（売春に特化した法規制を受ける）または非犯罪化（ほかの労働と同じ法規制しか受けない）されている。売春合法化・非犯罪化の背景には、AIDSと人身取引を予防するには、性産業を取り締まるより味方につけるほうが効果が高いという各国政府の判断や、税収への期待もあるといわれる。

　また、売春は犯罪ではないが買春を犯罪とした国は1999年に法制定したスウェーデンが最初で、ノルウェー、アイスランドが続いている。

［青山　薫］

『中山太郎著『売笑三千年史』（1956・日文社）』▽『神崎清著『売春』（1974・現代史出版会）』▽『金一勉著『日本女性哀史』（1980・現代史出版会）』▽『佐伯順子著『遊女の文化史――ハレの女たち』（1987・中央公論社）』▽『V・ブーロー他著、香川檀他訳『売春の社会史――古代オリエントから現代まで』（1991・筑摩書房）』▽『T・D・トゥルン著、田中紀子・山下明子訳『売春――性労働の社会構造と国際経済』（1993・明石書店）』▽『「女性の人権」委員会編『女性の人権アジア法廷――人身売買・慰安婦問題・基地売春を裁く』（1994・明石書店）』▽『総理府編『売春対策の現況』（1997・大蔵省印刷局）』▽『藤目ゆき著『性の歴史学――公娼制度・堕胎罪体制から売春防止法・優生保護法体制へ』（1997・不二出版）』▽『J・G・マンシニ著、寿里茂訳『売春の社会学』（2000・白水社）』▽『R・ワイツァー著、岸田美貴訳『セックス・フォー・セール――売春・ポルノ・法規制・支援団体のフィールドワーク』（2004・ポット出版）』▽『要友紀子・水島希著『風俗嬢意識調査――126人の職業意識』（2005・ポット出版）』▽『青山薫著『「セックスワーカー」とは誰か――移住・性労働・人身取引の構造と経験』（2007・大月書店）』▽『井上理津子著『さいごの色街　飛田』（2011・筑摩書房）』▽『山崎朋子著『サンダカン八番娼館』（文春文庫）』▽『福田利子著『吉原はこんな所でございました――廓の女たちの昭和史』（ちくま文庫）』