Nara period - Narajidai

Japanese: 奈良時代 - ならじだい

It refers to the 74 years from 710 (Wadō 3) to 784 (Enryaku 3) when the capital was in Nara (Nara City). Since the government centered on the Emperor was located here, the period was named after the place name. The official name of the Nara capital was Heijo-kyō, but since it was located in a place called Nara (also written as Nara, Nara, Noraku, Nara, Nara, etc.), it is commonly called the capital of Nara.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Overview of the era

Eight emperors reigned in the capital of Nara: Genmei, Gensho, Shomu, Kōken, Junnin, Shotoku (Kōken's second reign), Kōnin, and Kanmu. However, Emperor Kanmu was excluded because he later moved the capital to Nagaoka and then Heian-kyō, so the Nara period lasted for over 70 years under seven emperors. Most of the 8th century corresponds to this period. The Taiho Code was completed in 701 (Taiho 1) during the reign of Emperor Monmu, nine years before the capital was moved to Nara, and was gradually enacted, leading to the development and improvement of a centralized national system based on the Ritsuryo system. Heijo-kyo, the center of government, was slightly larger than Fujiwara-kyo during the reign of Emperor Mommu, measuring 4.3km east to west and 4.8km north to south, with a protruding area called Gekyo to the east. Large temples such as Daian-ji, Yakushi-ji, Kofuku-ji, Todai-ji, Hokke-ji, and Saidai-ji were built one after another in this capital, and culture centered on Buddhism flourished. In 702, Japanese envoys to Tang China were revived after a 33-year hiatus, and six missions were sent there during the Nara period. Japan also had relations with Silla and Bohai (countries that arose in northeastern China at the end of the 7th century), and many cultural artifacts from overseas were imported to Japan. For these reasons, the Nara period is called the golden age of our ancient nation, but even under the well-established Ritsuryo system, many poor farmers came into being, there were many homeless people, and famines and epidemics occurred frequently, giving rise to serious social problems. For this reason, the system of public land and public citizens began to become unstable in the mid-Nara period, and some say that this was a turning point for the Ritsuryo system. In the late Nara period, against the backdrop of such social unrest, a series of political upheavals occurred, including the Tachibana Naramaro Incident and the Fujiwara no Nakamaro Rebellion, and an unconventional political system was born in which the monk Dokyo became pope and took control of the government. Emperor Kanmu, the eighth emperor of the Nara period, moved the capital from Heijō to Nagaokakyō in 784, four years into his reign, and the Nara period came to an end.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Political Process

From Fujiwara-kyo to Heijo-kyo

The move of the capital to Heijo-kyo involved moving it from Fujiwara-kyo, which was located in the southern part of the same Nara Basin, to the northern part of the basin, but while the area around Fujiwara-kyo was home to many powerful clans such as the Soga, Abe, Kose, and Otomo, the area around Heijo-kyo was well-suited to implementing a new government, with few powerful clans other than the Kasuga clan and its allies.In addition, the Kizugawa River, which flows about 2 kilometers north of the low hills, connects to the Yodogawa and Ujigawa rivers, making it convenient for the distribution of goods and ideal for the construction of a large-scale capital. The person who promoted the relocation of the capital to this location was probably Fujiwara no Fuhito, who had been the Minister of the Right since 708 (Wado 1), but it is also believed that Emperor Genmei, who succeeded Emperor Mommu in July 707 (Keiun 4), also intended to build a new capital for his grandson, Prince Obito (son of Mommu, later known as Shomu). The relocation of the capital took place in March 710, with the Minister of the Left, Isonokami Maro, remaining in Fujiwara-kyo as a caretaker official, and the government leaders in Heijo-kyo were Prince Hozumi, the Chief Minister of State, Fuhito, the Minister of the Right, and Otomo no Yasumaro, the Grand Counselor.

[Naoki Kojiro]

The Appearance of Fujiwara no Fuhito

Under the Ritsuryo system, sovereignty lay with the Emperor, but the issuance of an imperial edict by the Emperor required the signature of a member of the Dajokan of Dainagon or higher, and members of the Dajokan (including Dainagon or higher, and later Chunagon and Sangi, who were outside the Ritsuryokan) could hold meetings on important government affairs and submit their conclusions to the Emperor (Ronso). In the early Nara period, there were successive emperors, Genmei and Gensho, so the Dajokan had a strong voice, and it is thought that the power of Udaijin Fuhito, who was the highest ranking outside the Ritsuryokan except for the Chief Dajokan Officer, gradually increased. He wanted Prince Suke, who was born to his daughter Miyako, who became the wife of Emperor Mommu, to ascend to the throne, and in 714 (Wado 7), Suke was made crown prince. In 715 (Reiki 1), Genmei abdicated and his daughter, Empress Gensho, ascended to the throne. Prince Su was 15 years old, the legal age for the throne, but he could not do so because his mother was from the Fujiwara clan and was not a member of the imperial family. Gensho ascended to the throne in 715, and Fuhito deepened his ties with Crown Prince Su by making his daughter, Asukabehime, the wife of Crown Prince Su in the following year, 716. In 715, the system of fifty households and one ri, as stipulated by the ordinance, was revised to include fifty households in one village, and the Gori system, which divided one village into two or three villages, was implemented. As a result, villages consisting of a dozen households were created, which seems to have been a policy to spread political control to the lowest levels of society. While Fuhito was trying to thoroughly implement the Ritsuryo system in this way, he also began revising the Taiho Ritsuryo Code. It is said to have been completed in 718 (Yoro 2) and called the Yoro Code, but it was not completed during Fuhito's lifetime and continued after his death in 720, and the prevailing theory is that it was discontinued after being given a more or less final form around 722.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Nagaya King Government

The basic policy of politics in the Nara period was the implementation of government based on the Ritsuryo system, which was established by Fuhito and was inherited by subsequent governments and politicians, but the Ritsuryo system gradually became incompatible with the changing realities of society over the years. The challenge for politics after Fuhito was to maintain the Ritsuryo system while amending the Ritsuryo code to make it compatible. After Fuhito's death, Prince Takechi's eldest son, Dainagon Nagayao (who became Minister of the Right the following year in 721), became the center of politics. Among the Fujiwara clan, Fuhito's eldest son Muchimaro was Chunagon and his second son Fusasaki was Councilor, so they were not as strong. However, Fuhito's wife Agata Inukai Michiyo, who gave birth to Yasuyadohime, served as a court lady to Genmei and Gensho, and had great influence in the imperial court. It is believed that Michiyo's influence was a major factor in Fusasaki's becoming a minister who responded to the Emperor's inquiries in 721. Three years later, in 724 (Jinki 1), Prince Su ascended to the throne after Gensho abdicated. This was Emperor Shomu, who was 24 years old at the time. This marked the start of a comeback for the Fujiwara clan. Under both Emperors Gensho and Shomu, Nagayao focused on providing relief to the poor and maintained the Ritsuryo system. Among his policies, the most notable were the Million Hectares Reclamation Plan issued in 722 (Yoro 6) and the Sanzei Isshinho (Three Generations and One Life Law) of 723. The former was a plan that was too large-scale and difficult to realize. The latter was also a measure to encourage reclamation, and allowed those who built new irrigation facilities to own reclaimed land for three generations, and those who used existing ponds and ditches to own reclaimed land for only one generation. In this way, Nagaya no O tried to solve the social problems created by the Ritsuryo system. In February 729 (Tenpyo 1), someone reported that Nagaya no O was plotting a rebellion, so the Imperial Court ordered Fujiwara no Umakai (the third son of Fuhito) to lead troops to surround Nagaya no O's residence, and the king committed suicide along with his family. This became known as the Nagaya no O Incident. Six months later, in August of the same year, Yasuyadohime, a descendant of the Fujiwara clan, became empress and was called Empress Kōmyo. This was an unusual appointment, as under the Ritsuryo regulations the empress could only be a member of the imperial family. It was later discovered that the report was an innocent slander.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Fujiko's Administration

Thus, the government was returned to the hands of the Fujiwara clan, and in 731 (Tenpyo 3), the Dajokan consisted of Toneri Shinno, Dainagon Tajihi no Ikemori, and Fujiwara Muchimaro, a total of 12 people including councilors. Among them were the brothers Muchimaro, Fusasaki, Ugo, and Maro (Fuhito's fourth son), and the government centered on these four was called the Fujiwara Four Brothers Government. The change in the political world caused great unrest in society. Prior to this, the monk Gyoki had spread Buddhism among the people in violation of the prohibition of the decree, and had been under the oppression of the government since 717 (Yoro 1). However, Gyoki's teachings spread among the people through social work such as digging ponds and building roads and bridges, and by around 730, his followers had become large enough to threaten the government. In 731, the government compromised by allowing elderly men and women who followed Gyoki to become monks and nuns. Around this time, the government also attempted to reduce the burden on citizens by abolishing the Sakimori (defence force) (730) and halving the land tax (731), while placing military governors in the four provinces of Tokai, Tozan, San'in and Saikai (732). While the Fujiwara government was responding to social unrest in this way, a new disaster struck Japan: a major smallpox epidemic that had been transmitted from overseas. The epidemic began in the jurisdiction of Dazaifu in 735 and raged throughout the capital and provinces of Kyoto and Kyoto in 737, killing countless people, including Takechimaro and his four brothers, along with many nobles, and the Fujiwara government came to an end.

[Naoki Kojiro]

The Tachibana Moroe Administration

After that, the central figure of the government was Dainagon Tachibana no Moroe (who became Minister of the Right in 738). Prince Suzuka, the son of Prince Nagaya, was appointed as the Chief Minister of State, but Moroe held real power. Moroe was the son of Prince Minu and called Prince Katsuragi, and in 736 (Tenpyo 8) he was given the surname Tachibana and became a commoner. One of the characteristics of the Moroe government at the time of its establishment was that it was an anti-Fujiwara force, and they hoped that Prince Asaka, born to Shomu's wife, Inukai Hirotoji, would be made crown prince. Prior to this, in 738, Princess Abe, born to Empress Komyo, had become crown prince, but there was no precedent for a female crown prince, so the possibility of Asaka becoming crown prince remained. Another distinctive feature was the implementation of austerity politics to recover from the damage caused by smallpox. These included the re-suspension of the defense forces, which had been suspended in 730 (737), a reduction in the number of gunji and the abolition of soldiers except in militarily important provinces such as Mutsu and the jurisdiction of Dazaifu (739), and the simplification of administration by amending the gori system, which had been implemented in 715 (Reiki 1), in 740 to abolish sato and to make only go, abolishing the system. Around this time, under the Shoyo government, Kibi no Makibi, who had studied in China as a student and scholar, and the monk Genbo wielded great influence. Genbo in particular gained the trust of the imperial court after treating the illness of Shomu's mother Miyako. In response to this political situation, Hirotsugu (Uma's eldest son), the Dazai Shoni (junior minister of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) on the side of the Fujiwara clan, raised an army in August 740, demanding the expulsion of Mabi and Genbo. This is known as the Hirotsugu Rebellion. Hirotsugu gathered soldiers from various Kyushu corps and Hayato, while the government summoned soldiers from the Tokaido and five other provinces, as well as Hayato who had migrated to Kinai, to carry out a campaign against the rebels. The punitive force defeated Hirotsugu's army in early October, and Hirotsugu was later captured and executed, bringing the rebellion to an end.

However, Shomu left Heijo Palace in October of the same year and headed east, passing through Ise, Mino, and Omi, and in December he arrived at Kuni Imperial Villa (Reihei, Kamo-cho, Kizugawa City, Kyoto Prefecture) in Sagaraka County, Yamashiro Province, and the following year announced that he would move the capital there. It was called Kuni-kyo. Shomu did not settle here, and for the next five years until 745 he moved between three places: Kuni, Shigaraki in Koga County, Omi Province (Koka City, Shiga Prefecture), and Naniwa in Settsu Province (Osaka City). The reason for this is unclear, but it is thought to have been due to a power struggle between the Shohei and the Fujiwara clan. The powerful men in the southern part of Yamashiro supported Kyonin, while the Fujiwara clan, powerful in Omi, supported Shigaraki, and it is believed that the men cooperated with Emperor Genshota to move the capital to Naniwa. Amidst the turmoil surrounding the capital's relocation, Shomu ordered the construction of provincial temples and provincial nunneries in 741, and in 743 issued an imperial decree to build the Great Buddha of Vairocana, beginning construction in Shigaraki. The government also enacted the Law Containing Reclaimed Land for Eternal Private Property in 743, allowing cultivators to keep land they had reclaimed for themselves in perpetuity, up to a certain limit. This was a measure to promote land development, but it contradicted the principle of public ownership of land, which was the foundation of the Ritsuryo system. Private land ownership by aristocrats, powerful families, and temples who had the financial means to reclaim land increased thereafter. In particular, powerful aristocrats and temples employed ordinary farmers and vagrants to cultivate land, or bought up the fields cultivated by the farmers, expanding their private property and turning them into manors. These are called early manors.

In the political world, Prince Asaka, who was the hope of the Shoke faction, died suddenly in 744, dealing a blow to the Shoke faction, and it was around this time that Fujiwara no Nakamaro (the second son of Takechimaro) began to gain influence. The capital returned to Heijō in 745, and political stability was restored, but Nakamaro's influence gradually began to overwhelm the Shoke faction. In 748, Emperor Genshō, who had supported the Shoke faction, died, and the following year, in 749 (Tenpyō-shōhō 1), Shōmu abdicated and Princess Abe ascended to the throne. She was called Empress Kōken.

[Naoki Kojiro]

The Fujiwara no Nakamaro government

After Kōken ascended to the throne, the top officials of the Dajokan were the Minister of the Left, Tachibana Moroe, the Minister of the Right, Fujiwara Toyonari (the eldest son of Takechimaro), the Dainagon Kose no Natemaro, and Fujiwara Nakamaro. When Shōmu abdicated and Empress Kōmyo became empress dowager, Nakamaro took the opportunity to expand and reorganize the Kogoguushiki (Office of the Empress's Court), establishing a new office called the Shibichudai, and he himself became the chief of the Shibichudai office, while also appointing many capable officials to the post. After this, the handling of important government affairs was transferred from the Dajokan to the Shibichudai, and it is believed that Empress Kōmyo, assisted by Nakamaro, took over politics in place of Kōken. Thus, the government came into Nakamaro's hands. Genbo, who had once been highly valued by the various elders, was ousted in 745 (Tenpyo 17), and Kibi no Makibi was demoted to Chikuzen no Kami in 750 (Tenpyo Shoho 2). The construction of the Great Buddha, which had begun in Shigaraki, was resumed in 745 in the eastern suburbs of Heijo-kyo, and was completed in April 752, with a grand eye-opening ceremony. However, the construction of the Great Buddha was a huge project that exceeded the national power of Japan at the time, and it caused financial hardship for the government and increased the burden on farmers, which became one of the causes of political unrest. Retired Emperor Shomu distanced himself from politics after abdicating, and although he was a devout believer in Buddhism, he was in poor health and fell seriously ill in the winter of 755. His elders were informed that he had made disrespectful remarks at a drinking party, and he resigned from his position as the Left Minister in January 756, and Shomu died in May of the same year. Through a strategy, Nakamaro installed Prince Oio (son of Prince Toneri), who was on close terms with him, as the crown prince.

In 757 (Tenpyo Houji 1), Moroe also died, and the power of the anti-Fujiwara faction further weakened. Moroe's eldest son, Tachibana Naramaro, attempted to seize power by raising an army in July of that year, but the plan was discovered beforehand, and Naramaro and many other influential members of the Otomo, Saeki, Tajihi, and other clans who had been involved in the plot were arrested, killed, or exiled. Nakamaro dealt with the incident harshly, and also worked to stabilize people's minds by reducing taxes such as miscellaneous labor (60 days of labor per year) and rice tax. The next few years were the golden age of Nakamaro. Just before the Naramaro incident occurred, in May of the same year, the Taiho Code was abolished and the Yoro Code was enacted, but this is presumed to have been a measure by Nakamaro to emphasize the achievements of his grandfather Fuhito. In 758, Kōken abdicated the throne to Prince Ōi and became Emperor Junnin, probably at the request of Nakamaro. It seems that the discord between Kōken and Nakamaro began to show signs around this time. Retired Empress Kōken strengthened the guards, the Juto no Toneri, given to her by Shōmu, and made them the Juto e, a military force for self-defense. Nakamaro tried to increase the dignity of the court by changing the names of government positions to the Tang style. One example of this was changing the name of the Dajōkan to Kenseikan and the name of the Ziwei Chudai to Kongukan. He advanced from Taiho (Minister of the Right) to Taishi (Grand Minister of State). Nakamaro also implemented various policies, such as setting up a regular storehouse to regulate rice prices and building fences in Mutsu and Dewa to promote the development of Ezo, but the death of Empress Komyo in 760 dealt a blow to the Nakamaro government. In 761 the capital was moved from Heijō to Hora (Otsu City) in Shiga County, Omi Province. The ostensible reason for this was the reconstruction of Heijō Palace, but Nakamaro likely planned to strengthen his power by moving the capital to Omi Province, which was under the influence of the Fujiwara clan. However, the following year, the monk Dokyō treated the retired empress Kōken when she was ill at Hora Palace, earning her the trust and favour, which led to discord between Kōken and Junnin. The two eventually returned to Heijō, but Kōken held real political power, and Nakamaro's position, with Junnin as his supporter, became unstable. Because he had too much power he had few allies even within the Fujiwara clan, most of whom supported Kōken, whose mother was Kōmyō. In an attempt to turn the tide, Nakamaro raised an army in September 764, but failed and fled to Ōmi, where he was defeated after fighting back. Prior to this, Nakamaro had been given the surname Emi no Oshikatsu by Junnin, so this rebellion is sometimes called either the Nakamaro Rebellion or the Oshikatsu Rebellion. Junnin, who was left behind in the capital, was dethroned and exiled to Awaji, and Kōken became emperor again. She was named Empress Shōtoku. Junnin died in Awaji the following year.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Dokyo's rise to fame

Shotoku appointed Dokyo as Minister of State and Zen Master, and recalled Toyonari, who had been demoted, to Minister of the Right. The reason why he did not appoint a crown prince at this time may have been because he intended to pass the throne to Dokyo. Dokyo later advanced from Minister of State and Zen Master to Pope, and was treated as equivalent to an emperor. Shotoku also renamed the Jutoue to Konoefu, and established two new offices, the Middle Office and the Outer Office, and, in addition to the five existing offices, he had a powerful military force of eight offices. It is thought that the construction of Saidaiji Temple in the capital and Yuge Palace in Yuge, Kawachi, Dokyo's hometown, was also related to Dokyo. However, in the Dajokan, Fujiwara Nagate soon became Minister of the Left, Kibi no Makibi became Minister of the Right, and Fujiwara Matate and others appeared as Dainagon, so Dokyo did not hold so much power alone. They were waiting for an opportunity to overthrow Dokyo. In 769 (Jingo Keiun 3), Suge no Asomaro, the chief deity of Dazaifu, reported to the Imperial Court the oracle of Usa Hachimangu Shrine that Dokyo should be crowned Emperor. This is known as the Usa Hachiman Oracle Incident, but Wake no Kiyomaro, who was sent to Usa by Shotoku, brought back the oracle that only members of the imperial family could become Emperor, preventing Dokyo from ascending to the throne. The following year, 770 (Hōki 1), Dokyo lost power with the death of Shotoku, and was subsequently transferred to Yakushi-ji Temple in Shimotsuke.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Reconstructing the Unrestricted Fiscal System

As Shōtoku had no crown prince, the issue of succession was difficult, but Fujiwara no Momokawa (son of Uma) devised a plan to have Emperor Tenchi's grandson, Prince Shirakabe, enthroned. This was Emperor Kōnin. All emperors from Genshō onwards were of the Tenmu line, so Kōnin's enthronement, who was of the Tenchi lineage, was unusual, but his empress, Princess Inoue, was a daughter of Emperor Shōmu, and so was connected to the Tenmu line in the female line. Kōnin ascended to the throne in 770, and the era name was Hoki. He was 62 years old, and after the death of the Minister of the Left, Nagate, the following year, it is believed that real political power was held by the Minister of the Interior, Fujiwara no Yoshitsugu (Momokawa's older brother), and the Councillor Momokawa. The challenge for the Konin era was to tighten the finances, which had been running loose since the reign of Kōken. He abolished non-essential government officials, and worked to dismiss kokushi and shisho who were not on the payroll. He also paid attention to resting the people, ordering kokushi not to lend rice with interest in excess of the regulations, abolished military service for ordinary farmers, and requisitioned soldiers from prominent farmers. Konin's crown prince was Prince Osabe, born to Empress Inoue, but in 772 (Hōki 3), Inoue was deposed as empress for the crime of cursing the emperor, and Prince Osabe was stripped of his position as crown prince. Both mother and son were imprisoned in Uchi District, Yamato Province, and died on the same day three years later. The truth behind this is unknown, but it is thought to have been a plot by Momokawa. Prince Yamabe, born to his wife Takano no Niigasa, became the crown prince. Yamabe's wife was Yoshitsugu's daughter Otomuro, who gave birth to Prince Andon (later Emperor Heizei) the year after Yamabe was made crown prince in 773. Yamabe ascended to the throne in 781 (Ten'o 1) when Kōnin abdicated. He became Emperor Kanmu. Kōnin died in December of that year, and Kanmu changed the era name to Enryaku the following year, and moved the capital to Nagaoka in 784 (Enryaku 3).

[Naoki Kojiro]

Diplomacy

Envoys to the Tang Dynasty

In the 8th century in East Asia, the Tang Dynasty possessed great national power and advanced systems and culture. Maintaining friendly relations with the Tang Dynasty and adopting its systems and culture were essential conditions for the survival and development of our country, which was a developing country. During the Nara period, diplomacy with the Tang Dynasty was at the center of Japan's diplomacy. As mentioned above, the dispatch of envoys to Tang China was resumed at the beginning of the 8th century after a period of discontinuation. The first envoy of the Nara period was sent to Tang China in 717 (Yoro 1), and Kibi no Makibi, Abe no Nakamaro, and the monk Genbo accompanied the envoys as students and scholars. The second mission entered China in 733 (Tenpyo 5) and returned in 734 accompanied by Mabi and Genbo. The third mission was led by Fujiwara no Kiyokawa, who entered China in 752 (Tenpyo Shoho 4). Deputy ambassador Otomo no Komaro returned the following year accompanied by the Chinese monk Ganjin, but Kiyokawa drifted south and later returned to China, where he spent the rest of his life. Ganjin transmitted Buddhist precepts to Japan and built Toshodaiji Temple. The fourth mission entered China via the Sea of Japan in 759 (Tenpyo Hoji 3) along with the Bohai envoys returning home, and attempted to return with Kiyokawa, but failed and returned in 761. The fifth mission entered China in 777 (Hōki 8) and returned the following year. The ship that was wrecked and washed ashore on Koshiki Island in Kyushu had the daughter of Kiyokawa on board. The sixth time, he was an envoy to send off the Tang envoy Sun Xingjin. He built two ships, entered Tang China in 779, and returned to Japan in 781 (Ten'o 1).

In most cases, a mission to the Tang Dynasty consisted of four ships, so the group was called the "four ships." The route during the Nara period often departed from Naniwa-no-tsu and headed for the mouth of the Yangtze River from the Goto Islands in Kyushu or Amami Oshima in the Nansei Islands; the former is called the Southern Route and the latter the Nanto Route. The four ships carried 500-600 people, and on the outbound journey they sent students and scholars, and on the return journey they brought back a variety of cultural artifacts, including books, musical instruments, medicines, and clothing, making a great contribution to the development of Japanese culture. It is likely that some of the treasures stored in Shosoin were brought by the missions to the Tang Dynasty. However, many of the ships were lost at sea, and many sacrifices were made.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Exchange with Silla and Balhae

Silla wanted to maintain a close relationship with Japan to counter the Tang Dynasty, and Japan also exchanged envoys frequently to accept Silla's advanced culture. During the Nara period alone, there were 17 envoys to Silla and 11 to Silla. Based on the legend that Japan once ruled Silla, Japan tried to treat Silla as a vassal state and Silla's envoys as tributary envoys. Silla initially accepted Japan's attitude, but as its national power grew and the Tang Dynasty became more intimate with Silla, wary of the rise of Balhae, Silla sought equal diplomacy with Japan, and tensions arose frequently between Japan, which did not stop treating Silla as a tributary state. Notable examples of this include the release of Silla envoys in 734 (Tenpyo 6) and 743, on the grounds that their sovereign letters were disrespectful and did not conform to old customs, and the plan to invade Silla around 761 (Tenpyo Hoji 5). Silla also did not accept Japan's envoy to Silla in 736. Although the plan to invade Silla did not come to fruition, diplomatic relations between Japan and Korea weakened after this. However, Silla merchant ships continued to sail to Japan, and trade was conducted at Nanotsu and other ports, bringing precious spices, medicines, dyes, and other goods from the south to Japan.

Balhae was founded in 698 on the former land of Goguryeo. It was originally called Shinkoku, but in 713, the Tang Dynasty appointed Balhae Commander and changed the country's name to Balhae. The second king, Mugye, who succeeded the first king, Daejoyeong, plotted independence from the Tang Dynasty, which in turn pressured Balhae by deepening its ties with Silla. Isolated Balhae tried to get closer to Japan, and in 727 (4th year of Jinki), it sent an envoy to Japan in the form of a tribute. Thus, diplomatic relations with Balhae began, and by the end of the Nara period, Balhae envoys had visited Japan a total of 10 times, and envoys to Balhae had been dispatched nine times, including those who sent envoys to Balhae, maintaining friendly relations. This was because the attitude of the envoys from Balhae was polite, and the gifts they brought included rare products such as tiger, bear and leopard furs and ginseng, while Japan sent silk fabrics such as saihaku and aya, as well as silk thread. From the latter half of the Nara period onwards, the main purpose of exchanges became economic gains through trade rather than political purposes, and this continued until the beginning of the 10th century.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Society and Economy

Population and distribution

The total population of Japan in the Nara period is estimated to be about 6 million people based on family registers and other historical materials. More than 90% of them were citizens who paid taxes, and slaves are thought to be less than 5%. According to the family register, the number of people in a household was usually about 20 to 25 people, living in three small families, and in the case of powerful clans such as gunji, some had large families of about 50 to 100 people. However, there are conflicting theories: one that says the family register records the actual status of a family, and another that says they were created for the need to govern and tax and do not show the actual status. In the Nara period, an administrative system was implemented with the household at the lowest level, followed by provinces, counties, villages (later known as go), and households. There are theories that the population of Heijo-kyo was about 200,000 people and another that says it was 100,000 people. In Heijo-kyo, there were cities managed by the government in the left and right capitals, and markets were opened in the vicinity of the provincial capitals and in important transportation locations in each province to distribute goods. Copper and silver coins called Wado-kaichin (or Wadō-kaihō) were minted in 708 (the 1st year of the Wadō era) and circulated in Kinai and the surrounding areas. The government encouraged the circulation of currency, and issued the Order for the Contribution of Ranks to Those Who Accumulated Currency, which awarded ranks according to the amount of currency. Currency was not widely circulated in areas far from the capital, and rice, silk, and linen cloth served as currency.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Farmer's life

In addition to the kubunden (rice fields) that were allotted to citizens according to the Ritsuryo Code, citizens made a living by renting state-owned public land (a type of tenant farming). However, due to the burden of shogunate taxes, labor taxes, military service, and poor harvests caused by bad weather, life was difficult, and many became homeless or fugitives. Meanwhile, influential farmers became wealthier by renting out rice and other crops and cultivating land, and the gap between rich and poor became more severe over time, which was one of the reasons for the collapse of the Ritsuryo system. The actual conditions of peasant life are gradually becoming clearer through excavations of houses and villages from that time, as well as through documents that have long been known, but the descriptions on wooden tablets unearthed from ruins around the country, including the Heijo Palace ruins, are also valuable historical materials. The opulent lifestyle of the capital's aristocrats can be seen from the treasures of the Shosoin Repository.

[Naoki Kojiro]

culture

During the Nara period, due to the development of centralized politics, a gorgeous culture developed mainly in the aristocracy, the courts and temples. This is called the Tenpyo culture, based on the year of the Shonmu dynasty. Although the influence of Tang culture was large, it also had the influence of Korean culture and the cultures of India and Persia through the Tang Dynasty, it had an international character. On the other hand, it was rich in ethnicity, with songs from the general public being incorporated into the Manyoshu and rural entertainment being performed at the court ceremonies.

[Naoki Kojiro]

Compilation of the Kojiki and Nihongo and Manyoshu

One of the characteristics of culture in this period was that the national awareness of the aristocracy was increased and the compilation of national history was carried out, and it is believed that the purpose was to historically explain the circumstances in which the emperor became the ruler of Japan. First, in 712 (Wadokoro 5), the Kojiki was created. First, Oono Yasumaro wrote the "Tetsuki" and "Old Dictionary" that Emperor Tenmu recited to Hieda Arei (Hidea no Are) and presented it to Emperor Genmei. Then, in 720 (Yoro 4), the Nihon Shoki was created, compiled by Prince Toneri Shinno by imperial orders. The Kojiki was written in Japanese-style Chinese, while the Chinese literary style was written in Chinese historical books. The government also ordered the record of legends, geography, and products of various regions in 713, and countries reported the results of their investigations. This is called the Fudoki. Waka poets developed in the late 7th century were also popular in the Nara period, and excellent poets such as Yamabe Akahito, Otomo no Tabito, Yamanoue no Okura, and Otomo Yamochi appeared. The Manyoshu featured songs from the late 7th century to the middle of the 8th century, but in addition to the poets mentioned above, it also includes songs by the people such as Touga (azuma stupa) and Sakimori stupa. The fact that the Manyogana (Kufu) was written in Japanese using kanji sounds and kun (kun) contributed to the development of Japanese notation. Chinese literature was valued as a liberal arts for officials, and in 751 (Tenpyo Shoho 3), the Chinese poetry collection, Kaifuso, was compiled.

[Naoki Kojiro]

The rise of Buddhism and Buddhist art

Buddhism in the Nara period grew even more prosperous due to the protection of the government, and monks also responded to the protection of the government, making it their mission to protect the state since the Tenmu and Jito dynasties, and held puja and prayers to protect the country as necessary. Shortly after the capital was relocated, the government built great temples such as Yakushiji, Daianji, and Kokufuku-ji in Heijokyo, and the construction of Todaiji Temple in Heijo Castle and Kokubunji Temple throughout the country, and Saidaiji Temple was built during the Shotoku dynasty. Monks studied Buddhist doctrines at these temples, and the schools of Nanto Six Sects (Sanron, Jojitsu, Hosso, Hosso, Kusha, Kegon, and Ritsu) were formed. The development of Buddhist teaching is largely due to the efforts of academic monks who studied abroad in the Tang Dynasty, but it also owes to monks who came from abroad, such as the Tang monks Ganjin and the Silla monks. The government protected Buddhism, but at the same time it strictly controlled it, stipulating the qualifications and procedures to become monks, and banned free missionary among the public. However, there were also monks, like Gyeki, who fought against the pressure of the government and spread Buddhism among the people. Buddhism flourished in this way, but the successive construction of great temples was a factor in the national financial poverty. There also appeared monks who intervened in politics, causing terrorism in the political world, and at the end of the Nara period, the Buddhist world appeared to be corrupt.

During the Nara period, excellent Buddhist art was created due to the rise of Buddhism. In particular, sculptures are realistic, aesthetic and powerful masterpieces. In addition to traditional wooden statues and gold statues, there are also some theories that they are written in the late 7th century, the Four Heavenly Kings of Kaidanin, the Fukukenjaku Kannonzo, the Nikko Bosatsuzo, the Moonlight Bosatsuzo, and the Eight-Bosho statues of Kofukuji Temple, the traditional wooden statues and gold statues, and the Buddhist statues of Kofukuji Temple are particularly famous. In addition to traditional wooden statues and gold statues, there are also Buddhist statues created using the methods of plastic statues and dry lacquer statues. In the paintings, the statue of Kichijo Tennyozo at Yakushiji, the Torigeritsujo no Biyobu at Shosoin, the Torigeritsujo no Biyobu at Yakushiji Temple, the Todaiji Temple Hokedo, and the Kondo of Toshodaiji Temple, etc. Dyeing, weaving, metalworking, and lacquerware have also developed using the techniques of Tang, and exquisite works have been created by engineers working in government workshops. Shosoin houses many of their excellent works, but the treasures include items from Tang, which show signs of cultural exchanges with India, Islam and Eastern Rome. These characteristics of international Tenpyo culture are also reflected in the gigaku and kigakuma performances performed at the Imperial Palace.

[Naoki Kojiro]

"Illustrated History of Japanese Culture 3 (1956, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Aoki Kazuo, "Japanese History 3: The Capital of Nara" (1965, Chuokoronsha)" ▽ "Hayakawa Shohachi, "Japanese History 4: Ritsuryo State" (1974, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Illustrated History 3: The Prosperity of Ancient States" (1974, Shueisha)" ▽ "Nara Edited by Naoki Kojiro, "Thinking about Ancient Times" (1985, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)"

Imperial family tree of the Nara period
©Shogakukan ">

Imperial family tree of the Nara period

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

奈良（奈良市）に都のあった710年（和銅3）から784年（延暦3）までの74年間をいう。天皇を中心とする政府がここにあったので、地名をとって時代の名称とした。奈良の都の公式の名称は平城京であるが、奈良（那羅、奈羅、乃楽、寧楽、楢などとも書く）とよばれる地にあったので、一般には奈良の都という。

［直木孝次郎］

時代の概観

奈良の都には、元明(げんめい)、元正(げんしょう)、聖武(しょうむ)、孝謙(こうけん)、淳仁(じゅんにん)、称徳(しょうとく)（孝謙の重祚(ちょうそ)）、光仁(こうにん)、桓武(かんむ)の8代の天皇が在位したが、桓武天皇はその後都を長岡および平安京に移したので除外し、奈良朝7代70余年という。8世紀の大部分がこの時代に相当する。奈良遷都の9年前である文武(もんむ)天皇治世下の701年（大宝1）に大宝律令(たいほうりつりょう)が完成し、順次施行されて、律令制に基づく中央集権の国家体制がこれ以後整備・充実した。その政治の中心となる平城京は、文武朝の藤原京より一回り大きく、東西約4.3キロメートル、南北約4.8キロメートルの規模をもち、さらに東部に外京(げきょう)とよぶ突出部があった。この都に大安寺、薬師寺、興福寺、東大寺、法華寺(ほっけじ)、西大寺(さいだいじ)などの大寺院が次々と建設され、仏教を中心とする文化も栄えた。また702年に33年ぶりに復活された遣唐使(けんとうし)は奈良時代に六度派遣され、新羅(しらぎ)や渤海(ぼっかい)（7世紀末、中国東北部に興った国）とも通交し、海外の文物も多数日本に輸入された。こうした点から奈良時代はわが古代国家の黄金時代とよばれるが、整った律令制度のもとで貧困な農民も数多く生じ、浮浪者が続出し、飢饉(ききん)や流行病もしばしば起こって、深刻な社会問題が生まれた。このため奈良時代中期には公地公民の制度も動揺し始め、このころを律令体制の曲り角とする意見もある。奈良時代後期には、こうした社会不安を背景にして、橘奈良麻呂(たちばなのならまろ)の変や藤原仲麻呂(ふじわらのなかまろ)の乱などの政変が相次いで起こり、僧道鏡(どうきょう)が法王となって政治をとるという変則的な政治形態も生まれた。奈良朝8代目の桓武天皇は、即位4年目の784年に都を平城から長岡京に移し、奈良時代は終わった。

［直木孝次郎］

政治過程

藤原京から平城京へ

平城遷都は、同じ奈良盆地の南部にあった藤原京から盆地北部への移動であるが、藤原京の周辺には蘇我(そが)、阿倍(あべ)、巨勢(こせ)、大伴(おおとも)など有力大豪族の基盤の地が多いのに比べ、平城京周辺には春日(かすが)氏とその同族のほかには有力な氏族の本拠地はほとんどなく、新政を施行するのに適していた。また低い丘陵の北約2キロメートルの所を流れる木津川(きづがわ)は淀川(よどがわ)、宇治川に通じ、物資の流通にも便利で、大規模な都の建設には好適であった。この地への遷都を推進したのは、708年（和銅1）以来右大臣であった藤原不比等(ふひと)であろうが、707年（慶雲4）7月に文武天皇(もんむてんのう)の後を継いで即位した元明天皇(げんめいてんのう)も孫の首(おびと)親王（文武の子。後の聖武(しょうむ)）のために新都造営の意図があったと思われる。遷都は710年3月に行われ、左大臣石上麻呂(いそのかみまろ)は留守の官として藤原京に残り、平城京の政府の首脳部は、知太政官事(ちだいじょうかんじ)穂積親王(ほづみのしんのう)、右大臣不比等、大納言(だいなごん)大伴安麻呂(おおとものやすまろ)らであった。

［直木孝次郎］

藤原不比等の登場

律令政治では主権は天皇にあるが、天皇の詔書の発令には大納言以上の太政官構成員の署名を必要とし、太政官構成員（大納言以上、のち令外官(りょうげのかん)の中納言、参議を含む）は重要な政務について会議を開き、結論を上奏（論奏）することができた。奈良時代の初期には元明・元正(げんしょう)と女帝が続くので、太政官の発言力が強く、令外官の知太政官事を除いて最上位にある右大臣不比等の権力がしだいに高まったと考えられる。彼は自分の娘宮子(みやこ)が文武の夫人となって産んだ首親王の即位を望み、714年（和銅7）首は立太子した。715年（霊亀1）元明は退位し、娘の元正天皇が即位したとき、首親王は15歳、即位の可能な年齢であるが、即位できなかったのは、母が藤原氏の出で、皇族でないことが影響したのであろう。元正は715年即位、不比等は翌716年娘の安宿媛(あすかべひめ)を首皇太子の妃(きさき)として、結び付きを深めた。715年には、令に定める五十戸一里の制を改め、50戸を1郷、1郷を2ないし3の里に分ける郷里制(ごうりせい)が施行された。その結果、十数戸からなる里がつくられるが、政治支配を社会の末端にまで浸透させる政策と思われる。不比等はこのように律令政治の徹底を図るかたわら、大宝律令の改訂に着手した。718年（養老2）に完成し、養老律令(ようろうりつりょう)とよばれたとされるが、不比等の生前には完成せず、720年の死後も継続され、722年ごろいちおう形を整えて打ち切られたとする説が有力である。

［直木孝次郎］

長屋王政権

奈良時代の政治の基本路線は、律令制による政治の実施で、不比等によって敷かれ、以後の政府・政治家もこれを継承するが、律令制度は年とともに変化する社会の現実にしだいに適合しなくなる。適合するように律令に修正を加えながら律令体制を守ることが、不比等以後の政治の課題となる。不比等の死後、高市皇子(たけちのおうじ)の長男の大納言長屋王(ながやおう)（翌721年に右大臣）が政界の中心にたった。藤原氏では不比等の長男武智麻呂(むちまろ)が中納言、次男房前(ふささき)が参議でこれに及ばない。しかし不比等の妻で安宿媛を産んだ県犬養三千代(あがたいぬかいのみちよ)は女官として元明・元正の側近に仕え、宮廷に大きな力をもっていた。721年に房前が天皇の諮問に応ずる内臣となるのは、三千代の力によるところが大きいと思われる。そして3年後の724年（神亀1）に首親王は元正の譲位により即位した。これが聖武天皇で、ときに24歳。藤原氏の巻き返しの進行である。元正・聖武両天皇のもとで、長屋王は貧民の救済に意を用い、律令体制の維持を図った。その政策のなかで注目されるのは、722年（養老6）発令の百万町歩開墾計画と723年の三世一身法(さんぜいいっしんほう)である。前者は計画があまりに大規模で実現困難であった。後者も開墾奨励の方策で、新しく灌漑(かんがい)施設をつくって開墾した者には3代の間、もとからあった池や溝を利用した者は本人1代に限り、墾田の所有を認めた。長屋王はこのようにして律令制の生み出す社会問題の解決に努めた。729年（天平1）2月、長屋王が謀反を企てていると密告する者があり、朝廷は藤原宇合(うまかい)（不比等三男）に兵を率いて長屋王の邸を囲ませ、王は家族とともに自殺した。長屋王の変という。半年後の同年8月に藤原氏出身の安宿媛が皇后となり光明皇后(こうみょうこうごう)とよばれた。令の規定では皇后は皇族に限られるから、異例の立后である。のち密告は無実の讒言(ざんげん)であることがわかった。

［直木孝次郎］

藤四子政権

政権はこうして藤原氏の手中に戻り、731年（天平3）では太政官の構成は知太政官事舎人親王(とねりしんのう)、大納言多治比池守(たじひのいけもり)、同藤原武智麻呂、以下参議まで合計12人、うち藤原氏は武智麻呂・房前・宇合・麻呂（不比等四男）の兄弟で、この4人を中心とする政権を藤四子政権という。政界の変動は社会の動揺を激しくした。これより先、僧行基(ぎょうき)は令の禁止を破って民間に仏教を広めたため、717年（養老1）以来政府の強圧を受けたが、行基は池溝を掘り道橋をつくるなど社会事業を行って布教したため、その教えは民間に広がり、彼の信者は730年ごろには政府を脅かすほどの人数となった。政府は731年、行基に従う修行者のうち老人男女に限って僧尼となることを許し、妥協を計った。このころ政府はまた防人(さきもり)の停止（730）、田租の半減（731）など公民の負担の軽減を計る一方、軍事力をもつ節度使を東海、東山、山陰、西海の4道に置いた（732）。このように藤四子政権が社会の不安に対応しているところへ、さらに新しい災害が日本を襲った。海外から伝染した天然痘の大流行である。流行は735年大宰府(だざいふ)管内に始まり、737年には京畿内(きない)に猛威を振るって死亡者はおびただしく、多くの貴族とともに武智麻呂以下4兄弟も死亡して、藤四子政権は消滅した。

［直木孝次郎］

橘諸兄政権

その後を受けて政府の中心となったのは大納言橘諸兄(たちばなのもろえ)（738年に右大臣）である。知太政官事には長屋王の男鈴鹿(すずか)王が任ぜられたが、実権は諸兄が握った。諸兄は美努(みぬ)王の子で葛城(かつらぎ)王といい、736年（天平8）に橘の姓を賜って臣籍となった。成立当初の諸兄政権の特色の一つは反藤原勢力であることで、聖武の夫人県犬養広刀自(あがたいぬかいのひろとじ)の産んだ安積親王(あさかしんのう)の立太子を期待した。これより先738年に光明皇后の産んだ阿倍内親王(あべないしんのう)が太子となっていたが、女性の皇太子は前例がなく、安積の立太子の可能性は残されていた。特色のもう一つは、天然痘の被害から立ち直るための緊縮政治の実行である。730年の停止以後復活した防人の再停止（737）、郡司の定員の削減と陸奥(むつ)や大宰府管内など軍事上の重要な国以外の兵士の廃止（739）などであるが、715年（霊亀1）に施行された郷里制を740年に改めて里を廃し、郷だけにしたのも行政の簡素化である。このころ諸兄政権下では、留学生や学問僧として唐で学んだ経歴をもつ吉備真備(きびのまきび)と僧玄昉(げんぼう)が勢力を振るった。とくに玄昉は聖武の母宮子の病気を治療し、宮中の信任を得た。この政情に対し、藤原氏の側では大宰少弐(しょうに)の広嗣(ひろつぐ)（宇合の長男）が740年8月に、真備・玄昉の2人の追放を要求して挙兵した。広嗣の乱という。広嗣は九州各地の軍団の兵と隼人(はやと)を集め、政府は東海道以下5道の兵と畿内移住の隼人を召集して征討させた。征討軍は10月初めに広嗣の軍を撃破し、広嗣はその後捕らえられて斬(き)られ、乱は終わった。

　しかし聖武は同年10月に平城宮を出て東国に向かい、伊勢(いせ)、美濃(みの)、近江(おうみ)を経て12月に山背国(やましろのくに)相楽(さがらか)郡の恭仁(くに)離宮（京都府木津川(きづがわ)市加茂町例幣(かもちょうれいへい)）に入り、翌年ここに遷都を宣した。恭仁京という。聖武はここに落ち着かず、これから745年まで5年の間、恭仁と近江国甲賀郡の紫香楽(しがらき)（滋賀県甲賀(こうか)市）と摂津国の難波(なにわ)（大阪市）との3か所を転々とした。その理由は明らかではないが、諸兄と藤原氏の勢力争いが原因と思われる。山背南部に勢力をもつ諸兄は恭仁を推し、近江に勢力をもつ藤原氏は紫香楽を推し、諸兄はさらに元正太上(だいじょう)天皇と協力して難波遷都を進めたと考えられる。この遷都の騒ぎのなかで、聖武は741年に国分寺・国分尼寺の建立を命じ、743年に盧遮那大仏(るしゃなだいぶつ)造立の詔(みことのり)を発し、紫香楽でその造営に着手した。また政府は743年に墾田永年私財法を制定し、一定の限度内で開墾した土地を開墾者が永久に私有することを許した。これは土地の開発を推進する方策であるが、律令体制の基礎である土地公有の原則に反する。開墾を行える資力に恵まれた貴族・豪族や寺院の土地私有はこれ以後増加した。とくに有力な貴族や寺院は、一般の農民や浮浪者を雇って開墾させたり、農民の開墾した田を買い集めたりして私有地を広げ、荘園(しょうえん)とした。これを初期荘園という。

　政界では、諸兄派の期待を寄せていた安積親王が744年に急死し、諸兄派は打撃を受け、このころから藤原仲麻呂(なかまろ)（武智麻呂の次男）が勢力を伸ばし始める。都は745年に平城に戻り、政情は安定を取り戻すが、仲麻呂の権勢はしだいに諸兄を圧するようになる。748年諸兄派の支えとなっていた元正太上天皇が死去し、その翌749年（天平勝宝1）聖武は譲位して阿倍内親王が即位した。孝謙天皇(こうけんてんのう)とよぶ。

［直木孝次郎］

藤原仲麻呂政権

孝謙即位後の太政官上部は左大臣橘諸兄、右大臣藤原豊成(とよなり)（武智麻呂の長男）、大納言巨勢奈弖麻呂(こせのなてまろ)、同藤原仲麻呂という構成である。仲麻呂は聖武の譲位により光明皇后が皇太后となったのを機会に皇后宮職(こうごうぐうしき)を拡大・改組して紫微中台(しびちゅうだい)という役所を新設し、自ら長官の紫微令となるとともに有能な官人を多数職員とした。これ以後重要な政務の処理は太政官より紫微中台に移り、光明皇太后が仲麻呂の補佐により、孝謙にかわって政治をとったと考えられる。こうして政権は仲麻呂の手中に入った。かつて諸兄に重用された玄昉は745年（天平17）に失脚、吉備真備は750年（天平勝宝2）に筑前守(ちくぜんのかみ)に左遷された。紫香楽で始められた大仏造営の業は、745年平城京の東郊で再開され、752年4月に落成、盛大な開眼会(かいげんえ)が行われた。しかし大仏造営は当時の日本の国力を超える大事業であったため、政府の財政は窮乏し、農民の負担は増大し、政治の乱れる原因の一つとなった。聖武太上天皇は譲位後政治から遠ざかり、仏教を厚く信じていたが、健康に優れず、755年の冬重態に陥り、諸兄は酒席で不敬の言があったことを密告され、756年正月に左大臣の職を辞し、聖武は同年5月に没した。仲麻呂は策略により、自分と親しい関係にある大炊王(おおいおう)（舎人親王の子）を皇太子にたてた。

　757年（天平宝字1）諸兄も死去し、反藤原派の勢力はいよいよ衰えた。諸兄の長男橘奈良麻呂はこの年7月挙兵によって政権を奪取しようとしたが、事前に発覚して奈良麻呂をはじめ計画に加わった大伴、佐伯(さえき)、多治比(たじひ)などの諸氏の有力者が多く捕らえられて、殺され、または流罪となった。仲麻呂は事件を厳しく処理するとともに、雑徭(ぞうよう)（1年60日の力役）や田租などの租税を軽減して人心の安定に努めた。これから数年が仲麻呂の全盛期である。奈良麻呂の事件の起こる直前の同年5月、大宝律令を廃して養老律令が施行されるが、仲麻呂が祖父不比等の功績を強調するための処置と推定される。758年孝謙は位を大炊王に譲り、淳仁天皇(じゅんにんてんのう)の即位となるが、仲麻呂の要求によるものだろう。孝謙と仲麻呂の不和はこのころに兆したと思われる。孝謙太上天皇は聖武から与えられた護衛兵の授刀舎人(じゅとうのとねり)を強化して授刀衛とし、自衛のための軍事力とした。仲麻呂は官職の名称を唐風に改めて宮廷の威厳を高めようとした。太政官を乾政官(けんせいかん)、紫微中台を坤宮官(こんぐうかん)としたのはその一例である。彼の官職は大保(たいほ)（右大臣）から太師(たいし)（太政大臣）に進んだ。また仲麻呂は常平倉(じょうへいそう)を設けて米価の調節を計り、陸奥(むつ)・出羽(でわ)に柵(さく)をつくって蝦夷地(えぞち)の開拓を進めるなど、種々の政策を実施したが、760年の光明皇太后の死去は仲麻呂政権にとって打撃であった。761年都は平城から近江国滋賀郡の保良(ほら)（大津市）に移った。平城宮の改築のためというのが表面の理由だが、仲麻呂は、藤原氏の勢力下にある近江国に遷都して、権力の強化を企てたのであろう。ところが翌年保良宮では僧道鏡が孝謙太上天皇の病気を治療したことから孝謙の信任・寵愛(ちょうあい)を得、これがもとで孝謙と淳仁とは不和となった。やがて2人は平城へ帰るが、政治の実権は孝謙が握り、淳仁を擁する仲麻呂の地位は動揺した。彼は権力をもちすぎたため藤原氏のなかでも味方が少なく、その多くは光明を母とする孝謙を支持した。形勢挽回(ばんかい)のため仲麻呂は764年9月挙兵するが、失敗して近江に走り、抗戦のすえに滅んだ。仲麻呂はこれより先、淳仁から恵美押勝(えみのおしかつ)という氏名を賜っていたので、仲麻呂の乱とも押勝の乱ともいう。都に残された淳仁は廃位のうえ淡路に流され、孝謙がふたたび天皇となった。称徳天皇(しょうとくてんのう)である。淳仁は翌年淡路で没した。

［直木孝次郎］

道鏡の栄達

称徳は道鏡を大臣禅師とし、左遷されていた豊成を呼び戻して右大臣とした。このとき皇太子を定めなかったのは道鏡に皇位を譲る考えであったからかもしれない。道鏡はそののち太政大臣禅師から法王に進み、天皇に準ずる待遇を受けた。称徳はまた授刀衛を近衛府(このえふ)に改め、中衛・外衛の2府を置き、従来の五衛府を含め八衛府という強大な軍事力をもった。京内に西大寺、道鏡の出身地である河内(かわち)の弓削(ゆげ)に由義宮(ゆげのみや)を造営したのも、道鏡との関係が考えられる。しかし太政官にはやがて藤原永手(ながて)が左大臣、吉備真備が右大臣、藤原真楯(またて)らが大納言として登場し、道鏡1人が権をもっぱらにしたのではない。彼らは道鏡を追い落とす機会を待っていた。769年（神護景雲3）に大宰府主神の習宜阿曽麻呂(すげのあそまろ)が、道鏡を皇位につけよという宇佐八幡宮(うさはちまんぐう)の託宣を朝廷に報告した。いわゆる宇佐八幡神託事件であるが、称徳が宇佐に派遣した和気清麻呂(わけのきよまろ)は、天皇になるのは皇族に限るという神託を持ち帰り、道鏡の即位は阻止された。その翌770年（宝亀1）称徳の逝去とともに道鏡は勢力を失い、ついで下野(しもつけ)の薬師寺に移された。

［直木孝次郎］

放漫財政の再建

称徳には皇太子がなかったので、跡継ぎの問題は難航したが、藤原百川(ももかわ)（宇合の子）が策をめぐらして天智天皇(てんじてんのう)の孫の白壁王(しらかべおう)を即位させた。光仁天皇(こうにんてんのう)である。元正以後の天皇がいずれも天武天皇(てんむてんのう)系であったのに対し、天智系の光仁の即位は異例だが、皇后の井上内親王(いのえないしんのう)は聖武の皇女で、女系では天武系につながる。光仁は770年に即位し、年号を宝亀(ほうき)とした。年は62歳となっており、翌年に左大臣永手の死後、政治の実権は内臣藤原良継(よしつぐ)（百川の兄）と参議百川が手にしたと思われる。光仁朝の課題は孝謙朝以来放漫に流れていた財政の緊縮であった。必要なもの以外の令外官の廃止、定員外の国司・史生の解任に努め、また民力の休養にも留意し、国司に出挙(すいこ)（利息付きの稲の貸出し）を規定以上に行わないことを命じ、一般農民の兵役を廃し、有力農民から兵士を徴発した。光仁の皇太子には井上皇后の産んだ他戸親王(おさべしんのう)がたったが、772年（宝亀3）井上は天皇を呪咀(じゅそ)した罪で皇后を廃され、他戸も太子の地位を奪われ、母子ともに大和国(やまとのくに)宇智(うち)郡に幽閉、3年後の同じ日に死去した。真相は不明だが、百川の策謀かと思われる。皇太子には妃の高野新笠(たかののにいがさ)の産んだ山部親王(やまべしんのう)がたった。山部の妃には良継の娘乙牟漏(おとむろ)があり、山部が立太子した773年の翌年に安殿親王(あてしんのう)（後の平城天皇(へいぜいてんのう)）を産んだ。山部は781年（天応1）光仁の譲位により即位した。桓武天皇(かんむてんのう)である。光仁はその年12月に死去、桓武は翌年年号を延暦(えんりゃく)と改め、784年（延暦3）に都を長岡に移した。

［直木孝次郎］

外交

遣唐使

8世紀の東アジアでは唐が大きな国力と進んだ制度・文化をもっていた。唐と友好関係を保ち、制度・文化を摂取することは後進国のわが国の存立と発展のためには必須(ひっす)の条件であった。奈良時代の外交は唐とのそれが中心となる。前述のように8世紀の初め、しばらく中絶していた遣唐使の派遣が再開される。奈良時代に入っての第1回は717年（養老1）入唐(にっとう)の遣唐使で、吉備真備(きびのまきび)、阿倍仲麻呂(あべのなかまろ)、僧玄昉(げんぼう)らが留学生・学問僧として随行した。第2回は733年（天平5）に入唐し、真備、玄昉を伴って734年に帰国、第3回は藤原清河(きよかわ)が大使となり、752年（天平勝宝4）入唐、副使大伴古麻呂(おおとものこまろ)は唐僧鑑真(がんじん)を伴って翌年帰国したが、清河は南方に漂流し、のち唐に帰り、唐で一生を終えた。鑑真は日本に戒律を伝え、唐招提寺(とうしょうだいじ)を建てた。第4回の遣唐使は759年（天平宝字3）帰国する渤海使(ぼっかいし)とともに日本海を経由して入唐し、清河を伴い帰ろうとしたが果たさず、761年に帰国した。第5回は777年（宝亀8）に入唐、翌年帰国した。このとき難破して九州の甑島(こしきじま)に漂着した船には、清河の娘が乗っていた。第6回は唐の使人孫興進(そんこうしん)を送る使者で、船2艘(そう)を建造し、779年入唐、781年（天応1）に帰国した。

　多くの場合、遣唐使の船は4隻であったので、遣唐使の一行を「四つの船」とよんだ。奈良時代の航路は、難波津(なにわのつ)を出発し、九州の五島(ごとう)列島または南西諸島の奄美大島(あまみおおしま)などから揚子江(ようすこう)河口付近を目ざすことが多く、前者を南路、後者を南島路という。遣唐使船には4隻に500～600人が乗り、往路には留学生・学問僧を送り、帰路には書物、楽器、薬品、服飾などさまざまの文物を持ち帰り、日本文化の発展に大きな貢献をした。正倉院の蔵する宝物の一部は遣唐使のもたらしたものであろう。しかし遭難する船も多く、払った犠牲は少なくない。

［直木孝次郎］

新羅・渤海との交流

新羅(しらぎ)は唐に対抗するため日本と親密な関係を保つことを望み、日本も新羅の先進文化を受容するため、しばしば使節を交換した。その回数は奈良時代だけで新羅使17回、遣新羅使11回である。日本は、かつて日本が新羅を支配したという伝承に基づいて、新羅を従属国、新羅使を朝貢使とみなそうとした。新羅は初めはそうした日本側の態度に従ったが、国力が充実し、また唐が渤海の興隆を警戒して新羅と親密さを加えたため、日本と対等の外交を求め、朝貢国の扱いをやめない日本との間にたびたび緊張状態が生じた。734年（天平6）や743年に国書が旧例にたがい、礼を失するとして新羅使を放還し、761年（天平宝字5）前後に新羅征討の計画をたてたことなどは、その著しい例である。新羅も736年のわが遣新羅使を受け付けなかった。新羅征討計画は実現しなかったが、これ以後日羅の国交は衰えた。しかし新羅の商船は日本に渡航し、那の津(なのつ)などで交易が行われ、南方産の珍貴な香料、薬品、染料などが日本にもたらされた。

　渤海は698年にかつての高句麗(こうくり)の故地に成立した国で、初め震国(しんこく)といったが、713年唐から渤海郡王に封ぜられて国号を渤海に改めた。初代大祚栄(だいそえい)の後を受けた第2代武芸（武王）は唐からの独立を策し、唐は新羅と和親を深め渤海を圧迫した。孤立した渤海は日本に近づこうとし、727年（神亀4）入貢の形をとって使節を日本に送ってきた。こうして渤海との通交が始まり、奈良時代の終わりまでに渤海使の渡来は合計10回、遣渤海使の派遣は送渤海客使をあわせて9回に及び、親善関係が持続した。渤海使の態度が丁重であったことと、使節の献ずる品に虎(とら)、熊(くま)、豹(ひょう)の毛皮や人参(にんじん)など珍しい産物があったからで、日本からは綵帛(さいはく)、綾(あや)などの絹織物や絹糸を贈った。奈良時代の後半以降は政治的目的よりも交易による経済的利益を得ることが通交のおもな目的になり、10世紀の初めまで続いた。

［直木孝次郎］

社会・経済

人口・流通

奈良時代の日本の総人口は、戸籍その他の史料に基づいて約600万人と推定されている。その9割以上が課役を負担する公民で、奴婢(ぬひ)は5％以下と考えられる。戸籍の示すところによると、1戸の人数は普通20～25人ぐらいで、三つほどの小家族に分かれて暮らし、郡司などの豪族の場合は50～100人ぐらいの大家族をもつものもあった。しかし、戸籍の記載は家族の実態を示すとする説と、統治・課税の必要からつくられたもので実態を示さないとする説とが対立している。奈良時代はこの戸を最末端とする国・郡・里（のち郷）・戸の行政制度が行われた。平城京の人口はおよそ20万とする説と10万とする説とがある。平城京には政府の管理する市(いち)が左京と右京に存し、諸国には国府の付近や交通上の要地に市が開かれ、物資が流通した。貨幣は708年（和銅1）より和同開珎(わどうかいちん／わどうかいほう)の名をもつ銅貨と銀貨がつくられ、畿内とその周辺地域に流通した。政府は貨幣の流通を奨励し、貨幣を蓄えた者はその額によって位を授ける蓄銭叙位令を発布した。都から遠い地域ではあまり流通せず、稲、絹、麻布などが貨幣の役目をした。

［直木孝次郎］

農民の生活

公民は律令の定めに従って与えられる口分田(くぶんでん)のほか、国家所有の公田を賃租（小作の一種）して生活を維持したが、調・庸(よう)や雑徭(ぞうよう)・兵役などの負担、天候不順による不作などのために生活は苦しく、浮浪逃亡する者が少なくなかった。一方、有力な農民は稲などを貸し付ける出挙(すいこ)や土地の開墾などでいっそう富裕になり、貧富の差はときとともに甚だしくなり、律令体制の崩れる原因の一つとなった。農民生活の実情は、従来から知られている文献によるほか、当時の住居や村落の発掘によりしだいに明らかになりつつあるが、平城宮跡をはじめ各地の遺跡から出土する木簡の記載も貴重な史料である。都の貴族の華やかな生活のようすは、正倉院の宝物によって察することができる。

［直木孝次郎］

文化

　奈良時代には、中央集権政治の発達により貴族や宮廷・寺院を中心に華やかな文化が発達した。これを聖武朝の年号をとって天平(てんぴょう)文化とよぶ。唐文化の影響が大きいが、朝鮮の文化および唐を通じてインド、ペルシアなどの文化の影響もあり、国際的な性格をもつ。その反面、一般民衆の歌が『万葉集』に取り入れられたり、農村の芸能が宮廷の儀の場で演じられるなど、民族性にも富んでいた。

［直木孝次郎］

記紀・万葉集の編纂

この時代の文化の特色の一つは、貴族たちに国家的意識が高まり、国史の編纂(へんさん)が行われたことであるが、天皇が日本の支配者となる事情を歴史的に説明することも目的としたと思われる。まず712年（和銅5）に『古事記』が成った。先に天武天皇(てんむてんのう)が稗田阿礼(ひえだのあれ)に誦(よ)み習わせた「帝紀(ていき)」「旧辞(くじ)」を太安麻呂(おおのやすまろ)が筆録し、元明天皇(げんめいてんのう)に献上した。ついで720年（養老4）に舎人親王(とねりしんのう)が勅命によって編纂した『日本書紀』が成った。『古事記』が和風の漢文で書かれているのに対し、中国の史書を範とした漢文体で書かれている。また、政府は713年に各地の伝説・地理・産物などを記録することを命じ、諸国は調査の結果をまとめて報告した。これを『風土記(ふどき)』という。7世紀後半に発達した和歌は奈良時代にも盛んにつくられ、山部赤人(やまべのあかひと)、大伴旅人(おおとものたびと)、山上憶良(やまのうえのおくら)、大伴家持(やかもち)らの優れた歌人が現れた。『万葉集』には7世紀後半から8世紀中ごろまでの歌を載せるが、上記の歌人の歌のほか、東歌(あずまうた)や防人歌(さきもりうた)など民衆の歌も収められている。漢字の音(おん)や訓(くん)を用いて日本語を書き表す万葉仮名がくふうされたことは、日本語の表記法の発達に貢献した。漢文学は官人の教養として重んぜられ、751年（天平勝宝3）に漢詩集『懐風藻(かいふうそう)』が編まれた。

［直木孝次郎］

仏教の興隆と仏教美術

奈良時代の仏教は政府の保護によりますます栄え、僧侶(そうりょ)も政府の保護にこたえて天武・持統(じとう)朝以来の鎮護国家を使命とし、必要に応じて国を守るための法会(ほうえ)や祈祷(きとう)を行った。政府は遷都後まもなく平城京内に薬師寺、大安寺、興福寺などの大寺院を建て、聖武朝には平城に東大寺、全国に国分寺の建立が始められ、称徳朝には西大寺が造営された。僧侶はこれらの寺々で仏教教理を研究し、南都六宗（三論、成実(じょうじつ)、法相(ほっそう)、倶舎(くしゃ)、華厳(けごん)、律）という学派が形成された。仏教教学の発展は、唐に留学した学問僧の努力によるところが大きいが、唐僧鑑真や新羅僧(しらぎそう)審祥(しんじょう)など外国より渡来した僧に負うところも大きい。政府は仏教を保護したが、同時にこれを厳しく統制し、僧侶となる資格や手続を定め、民間での自由な布教を禁じた。しかし行基のように政府の圧迫と闘って民間に仏教を広めた僧もあった。こうして仏教は栄えたが、相次ぐ大寺院の造営は国家財政窮乏の一因となった。また道鏡のように政治に介入する僧も現れ、政界の混乱を甚だしくし、奈良時代の末期には仏教界も腐敗の様相を呈した。

　奈良時代には仏教の隆盛によって優れた仏教美術がつくられた。とくに彫刻には写実的、美的で力に満ちた名作が多い。薬師寺金堂(こんどう)の薬師三尊像（7世紀末の作とする説もある）、東大寺戒壇院(かいだんいん)の四天王像、同法華堂(ほっけどう)（三月堂）の不空羂索観音像(ふくうけんじゃくかんのんぞう)・日光菩薩像(にっこうぼさつぞう)・月光菩薩像(がっこうぼさつぞう)、興福寺の八部衆像などはとくに有名である。この時代には、従来からあった木像・金銅像のほかに、塑像(そぞう)・乾漆像(かんしつぞう)の手法でつくられた仏像があるのも特色である。絵画では、薬師寺の吉祥天女像(きちじょうてんにょぞう)、仏画ではないが正倉院の鳥毛立女屏風(とりげりつじょのびょうぶ)、建築では薬師寺東塔、東大寺法華堂、唐招提寺金堂などが優れている。染織、金工、漆工なども唐の技術を取り入れて発達し、政府の工房で働く技術者によって精巧な品がつくられた。正倉院にはその優れた作品が多数収納されているが、宝物のなかには唐からの渡来品も含まれ、インド、イスラム、東ローマ地域との文化交流の跡がうかがわれる。そうした国際的な天平文化の特色は、宮中で上演された伎楽(ぎがく)や伎楽面にも現れている。

［直木孝次郎］

『『図説日本文化史大系3』（1956・小学館）』▽『青木和夫著『日本の歴史3　奈良の都』（1965・中央公論社）』▽『早川庄八著『日本の歴史4　律令国家』（1974・小学館）』▽『『図説日本の歴史3　古代国家の繁栄』（1974・集英社）』▽『直木孝次郎編『古代を考える　奈良』（1985・吉川弘文館）』