Trade in buying and selling slaves has existed since ancient times all over the world as an essential element supporting the slave system; however, the slave trade since the Age of Discovery, i.e. the modern slave trade, has a unique historical character in that it was targeted exclusively at black Africans, constituted one leg of the triangular trade linking Western Europe, Africa, and the New World, and had the primary purpose of supplying labor to be used in the large plantations that produced agricultural products for export and in the mines that extracted precious metals and gems in the New World. The transportation of black slaves to the New World began as early as the beginning of the 16th century. In addition to the fact that the population had drastically decreased due to the early colonists' mistreatment of the native peoples (Indians) in mining labor and other activities, black slaves were required as a replacement labor force following accusations of mistreatment of the Indians by Las Casas and others. However, in general, black slaves in Spanish colonies in the Americas only played a complementary role to the Indian labor force, and it was the emergence of the slave-based sugar plantation economy in northeastern Brazil and the Caribbean islands from the late 16th century to the 17th century that prompted the full-scale development of the slave trade. The slave trade was initially carried out by the Portuguese, who had been among the first to embark on "geographical discoveries" and had secured slave settlements on the west coast of Africa. Spain, which had been unable to establish a base in Africa, aimed to ensure a stable supply of black slaves through contracts known as "asientos" at the end of the 16th century, but this continued until the late 18th century. However, other Western European countries, including the Netherlands, which took advantage of Spain's annexation of Portugal to control northeastern Brazil, began to enter the slave trade one after another as sugar production in their own colonies increased. In particular, when Britain's attempt to monopolize the business centered on the Royal African Company (established in 1672) reached a deadlock, it left the business in the hands of individual merchants from the end of the 17th century, and in the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, it acquired Spanish asientos from France, expanding the sales channels for slaves beyond its own colonies. As a result, London and Bristol rose to prominence as home ports for slave ships in the 17th century, and Liverpool in the 18th century. At the same time, they became wealthy as the nucleus of the transatlantic trade triangle that connected Britain (cotton cloth, guns, gunpowder, ornaments such as beads) → Africa (slaves) → West Indies (precious metals, raw sugar, cotton) → Britain. Thus, the slave trade reached its peak from the mid-17th century to the 18th century. Since the slave trade was often smuggled, it is difficult to grasp the exact number of black slaves imported to the New World, but even the lowest estimates put it at about 10 million, of which about one-third were imported in the 50 years from 1761 to 1810. In terms of the region of import throughout the entire period, Brazil accounted for about 40%, while the British Caribbean colonies of Jamaica and Barbados and the French Caribbean colonies of Saint Domingue (Haiti) and Martinique each accounted for about 20%. In the case of the British North American colonies, in the 18th century, the plantation economy of tobacco, rice, etc. expanded in the south, and merchants from New England and other places also began to participate in the slave trade, but as far as the number of imported slaves is concerned, they were far behind those of Brazil and the Caribbean islands. Meanwhile, the west coast of Africa and Mozambique, from the area around Sierra Leone to Angola through the mouth of the Niger River, became the center of black slave exports, but the coastal areas of Togo and Benin became known as the "Slave Coast," and the island of Sao Tome in the Gulf of Guinea became famous as a major stopover point for the slave trade. Slave traders usually procured slaves in exchange for goods brought from Europe, but another tragic aspect of the slave trade was the slave hunting by local black kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Benin and the Kingdom of Dahomey. In addition, the outflow of a large number of young and middle-aged people destroyed the societies and economies of various parts of Africa, and was one of the factors contributing to underdevelopment. Most of the slave ships were sailing ships of around 100 tons, and hundreds of black people were packed into them, so the mortality rate during the voyage, which took about five weeks, was said to have reached 10 to 20% due to poor hygiene and food. In the late 18th century, with the Industrial Revolution, Western Europe saw growing criticism of the slave trade from a liberal and humanitarian standpoint. At the forefront of this movement were British abolitionists such as Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846) and Wilberforce. In the early 19th century, major countries, starting with Denmark (1802) and Great Britain (1807), decided to abolish the slave trade, triggered by events such as the Haitian Slave Uprising (1791) and the Napoleonic Wars. However, in Cuba, where sugar production increased dramatically in the 19th century, and in southern Brazil, where coffee production rose, the demand for slaves led to rampant smuggling. As a result, the slave trade continued until the early 1860s, despite the British crackdown on slave ships, which even mobilized the navy. [Shigeru Suzuki] "The Historical Preconditions of Industrialization: Empire and Gentlemanship" by Minoru Kawakita (1983, Iwanami Shoten) " "Capitalism and Slavery" by E. Williams, translated by Takeshi Nakayama (1979, Rironsha)" [Reference] |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
奴隷の売買を行う交易は、奴隷制度を支える不可欠の要素として古代から世界各地に存在していたが、大航海時代以降すなわち近代の奴隷貿易は、もっぱらアフリカ黒人がその対象とされ、西欧、アフリカ、新世界を結ぶ三角貿易の一辺「中間航路」middle passageを構成し、新世界において輸出向け農産物を生産する大農場や貴金属・宝石を採掘する鉱山で使用される労働力の供給を基本的な目的としていたという点で独自の歴史的性格をもつ。 新世界への黒人奴隷の輸送は、早くも16世紀初頭に始まる。初期の植民者が鉱山労働などで原住民(インディオ)を酷使したためその人口が激減したことに加え、ラス・カサスらによるインディオ虐待の告発を契機に、それにかわる労働力として黒人奴隷が求められたからである。ただし、一般にアメリカ大陸のスペイン領植民地では黒人奴隷はインディオ労働力に対する補完的役割を果たすにとどまったのであって、奴隷貿易の本格的展開を促したのは、16世紀後半から17世紀にかけてのブラジル北東部やカリブ海諸島における奴隷制砂糖プランテーション経済の登場であった。 奴隷貿易は当初、いち早く「地理上の発見」に乗り出しアフリカ西岸に奴隷集積地を確保していたポルトガル人によって担われた。アフリカに拠点を築けなかったスペインは16世紀末、請負契約「アシエント」によって黒人奴隷の安定供給を目ざしたが、これは18世紀後半まで続いた。しかし、そのほかの西欧諸国は、スペインによるポルトガル併合に乗じてブラジル北東部を支配したオランダをはじめ、自国領植民地での砂糖生産の増大とともに次々と奴隷貿易に進出していった。とくにイギリスは、王立アフリカ会社(1672設立)を軸とした独占事業の試みが行き詰まると、17世紀末からは個人商人の手にゆだねたうえ、1713年ユトレヒト条約でフランスを退けてスペインのアシエントを獲得し、奴隷の販路を自国領植民地以外にも拡大していった。その結果、17世紀にはロンドン、ブリストル、18世紀にはリバプールが奴隷船の母港として興隆すると同時に、イギリス(綿布、銃・火薬、ビーズ玉などの装飾品)→アフリカ(奴隷)→西インド(貴金属、粗糖、綿花)→イギリスという、大西洋を囲む三角貿易の核として致富を遂げたのである。 こうして17世紀中葉から18世紀にかけ、奴隷貿易は最盛期を迎える。奴隷貿易には密貿易が多く、新世界に輸入された黒人奴隷の正確な総数を把握することは困難であるが、もっとも少ない推計でも約1000万人に上り、そのうちの約3分の1は1761年から1810年の50年間のものといわれる。また全期間を通じた輸入地域別内訳では、ブラジルが約40%、ジャマイカ、バルバドスなどのイギリス領カリブ海植民地とサン・ドマング(ハイチ)、マルティニークなどのフランス領カリブ海植民地がおのおの約20%を占めた。イギリス領北アメリカ植民地の場合、18世紀に入ると、南部でタバコ、米などのプランテーション経済が拡大し、ニュー・イングランドなどの商人も奴隷貿易に参加するようになるが、輸入奴隷数に関する限り、ブラジルやカリブ海諸島のそれには遠く及ばなかった。一方、黒人奴隷輸出の中心地となったのは、現在のシエラレオネ周辺からニジェール川河口付近を経てアンゴラに至るアフリカ西岸とモザンビークであるが、とくに現在のトーゴ、ベナン沿岸部は「奴隷海岸」の名によって、またギニア湾に浮かぶサントメ島は奴隷貿易の一大中継地として有名となった。奴隷貿易業者は普通、ヨーロッパから持ち込んだ商品との交換で奴隷を調達したが、そこに介在したベナン王国、ダオメー王国など現地の黒人王国による奴隷狩りは奴隷貿易が生み出したもう一つの悲惨な側面である。また多数の青壮年人口の流出はアフリカ各地の社会と経済を破壊し、低開発の一因となった。奴隷船の多くは100トン前後の帆船で、そこに数百人の黒人が詰め込まれたため、劣悪な衛生状態や食糧などによって、約5週間を要した航海中の死亡率は10~20%に達したとされる。 産業革命を迎えた18世紀後半、西ヨーロッパでは自由主義的・人道主義的立場からの奴隷貿易に対する批判が高まった。その先頭にたったのは、クラークソンThomas Clarkson(1760―1846)、ウィルバーフォースらのイギリスの奴隷貿易廃止論者であった。こうした状況のなか、ハイチ奴隷蜂起(ほうき)(1791)、ナポレオン戦争などを契機として、19世紀初頭からデンマーク(1802)、イギリス(1807)を皮切りに主要諸国が奴隷貿易廃止に踏み切った。しかし、19世紀に入って飛躍的に砂糖生産を伸ばしたキューバ、コーヒー生産の勃興(ぼっこう)をみたブラジル南部における奴隷需要が密貿易の横行を招いた結果、海軍までも動員したイギリスによる奴隷船の取締りにもかかわらず、奴隷貿易はなお1860年代初頭まで続くことになった。 [鈴木 茂] 『川北稔著『工業化の歴史的前提――帝国とジェントルマン』(1983・岩波書店)』▽『E・ウィリアムズ著、中山毅訳『資本主義と奴隷制』(1979・理論社)』 [参照項目] |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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