Special power relationships

Japanese: 特別権力関係 - とくべつけんりょくかんけい
Special power relationships

A relationship that is established based on a special public law legal cause, in which the subject is granted comprehensive control to the extent necessary for a specific purpose, and in which a specific person submits to this control. In contrast, a relationship that is established when a person naturally submits to the governing power of the state or local public entity without any special cause is called a general power relationship. In traditional administrative law, the relationship between the administration and the people has been divided into power relationships and non-power relationships, and the former has been divided into general power relationships and special power relationships.

The legal grounds for the establishment of a special power relationship include cases based on legal provisions (such as the forced hospitalization of infectious disease patients and the incarceration of prisoners) and cases based on the consent of the individual (such as admission to a national or public university, hospitalization at a national or public hospital, and the appointment of a civil servant). However, since universities and hospitals have shifted to a contractual relationship rather than a power relationship, today it would be better to call it a comprehensive consent relationship, which is also seen in the private sector, rather than a special power relationship.

Its distinctive feature is the elimination of the rule of law, that is, in general power relations, the restriction of human rights requires a legal basis and is subject to judicial review, but within special power relations, basic human rights can be restricted without a legal basis and judicial review is also limited. For example, restrictions on gatherings at universities, restrictions on visiting hours and sleeping hours at hospitals, library usage rules, and school student codes of conduct have been considered examples of human rights that are restricted without a legal basis.

However, this theory was originally devised in the late 19th century in Germany under an apparent constitutional monarchy to justify the unlimited obligation of government officials to the monarch, and had an anti-legalistic character. Therefore, under the current constitution, which aims for thorough rule of law, the general theory that human rights can be restricted without law does not seem to be valid. Therefore, this theory was criticized in West Germany after the Second World War, and in Japan, the criticism became prevalent from the 1950s. For example, since civil servant relationships are regulated in detail by the Civil Service Act, they are "general" relationships rather than "special" relationships, and the "power" seen there is no different from the "power" seen in private employment relationships, and is not state power. Prison relationships are also regulated in detail by law, so the explanation that they are discretionary outside the rule of law is not valid. In areas that have been considered to be special power relationships, it is true that administrative bodies can issue orders and restrict human rights without relying on law, but this can be said to be due to comprehensive delegation by law, or can be explained as a kind of annexed contract, and is by no means a "special" "power" relationship. However, this only means that in many cases administrative discretion is broad. The content of the legal relationship should not be generalized as a special power relationship, but should be clarified individually by examining each field. It can be said to be a special legal relationship common to both public law and private law. This explanation is more appropriate for incorporated universities and hospitals.

For a while after the Second World War, many court cases were based on the idea of ​​the special power relationship theory, but after that, this theory was essentially rejected, and many cases examined restrictions on human rights. Dismissal, suspension, and reprimand of civil servants, and expulsion and suspension of students from national and public schools are all subject to judicial review, as they are legal systems. However, in the case of national universities, the non-recognition of credits for courses is not subject to judicial review, while the non-recognition of completion of a specialized course is subject to judicial review (Supreme Court Third Petty Bench decision of March 15, 1977). This has been explained as "there are cases where the traditional theory remains that acts within a special power relationship are not judicially reviewed as internal acts, and are only subject to judicial review when a person is simply removed from that relationship." However, with the incorporation of national universities, they should be treated the same as private universities, so it will be explained as "although it is a contractual relationship, minor matters are left to the discretion of the university."

[Yasuhito Abe]

[Reference] | General power relations

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

特別の公法上の法律原因に基づいて成立し、特定の目的に必要な限りで、その主体に包括的な支配権が認められ、特定の者がこの支配に服することを内容とする関係。これに対して、人が、なんら特別の原因によらず、国または地方公共団体の統治権に当然に服することによって成立する関係を一般権力関係という。伝統的な行政法学では、行政と国民の関係は権力関係と非権力関係に分けられ、前者は一般権力関係と特別権力関係に分けられてきた。

 特別権力関係の成立する法律原因としては、法律の規定に基づく場合(感染症患者の強制入院、受刑者の在監関係など)と、本人の同意に基づく場合(国・公立大学への入学、国・公立病院への入院、公務員の任命など)があげられてきた。ただし、大学や病院は、法人化により、権力関係というよりも、契約関係に移行したので、今日では、特別権力関係というよりも、民間にもみられる、包括的な同意関係というべきであろう。

 その特色は法治主義の排除、つまり、一般権力関係では人権を制限するには法律の根拠が必要であり、それは司法審査に服するが、特別権力関係内部においては、法律の根拠に基づくことなく基本的人権を制限でき、司法審査も制限されるとする点にある。たとえば、これまでは、大学内の集会の制限、病院内の面会時間・就寝時間等の規制、図書館の利用規則、学校の学生・生徒心得などが法律に基づくことなく人権を制限している例とされてきた。

 しかしもともとこの理論は、19世紀後半の外見的立憲君主制下のドイツで、官吏の君主に対する無定量の服従義務を正当化するために考えられたもので、反法治主義的性格を有したため、法治主義の徹底を志向する現行憲法の下では、法律によらずに人権を制限できるという一般理論は妥当とは思われない。そこで、この理論は第二次世界大戦後は西ドイツでも批判され、日本でも昭和30年代から批判説が有力となった。たとえば、公務員関係は公務員法により詳細に規律されているから、「特別」の関係というより、「一般」の関係であり、そこにみられる「権力」も民間の雇用関係にみられる「権力」と異ならず、国家権力ではない。監獄関係も、法律で詳しい規制がなされているので、法治主義の外の裁量という説明は妥当しない。特別権力関係とされてきた領域では、確かに行政主体が法律に基づくことなく、命令し、人権を制限することができるが、それは法律の包括的な委任によるともいえるし、あるいは一種の付合契約と説明できるものであって、けっして「特別」の「権力」関係ではない。ただ行政の裁量が広い場合が多いというにとどまる。その法律関係の内容は特別権力関係などという一般論ではなく、個々の領域ごとの検討により個々に解明されるべきである。公法・私法共通の特殊な法律関係ともいえる。法人化された大学・病院についてはこの説明の方が妥当になっている。

 判例は、第二次世界大戦後しばらくは特別権力関係論と同様の発想にたつものが多かったが、その後は実質的にはこの理論を否定し、人権の制限について審査する例が多くなった。公務員の免職・停職・戒告処分、国・公立学校の学生に対する退学・停学処分は法律上の制度であるためもあって、すべて司法審査に服する。ただ、これまで国立大学関係で、授業科目の単位不認定は司法審査の対象とならず、専攻科修了の不認定は司法審査の対象となる(昭和52年3月15日最高裁判所第三小法廷判決)ことは、「特別権力関係内部の行為は内部行為として司法審査せず、単にその関係から排除する場合にのみ司法審査するという伝統的な理論が残っている場合もある」と説明されてきたが、国立大学の法人化により私立大学と同視すべきことになったため、「契約関係ではあるが、軽微なものは大学の裁量に任されている」と説明することとなるのであろう。

[阿部泰隆]

[参照項目] | 一般権力関係

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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