Earthenware - Doki

Japanese: 土器 - どき

A vessel made by shaping and firing clay bound with pebbles, sand, and other additives. Examples include Japanese Jomon pottery, Yayoi pottery, and Hajiki pottery. Pottery is generally fired at a low temperature of 600-900°C, and unlike later ceramics fired in structural kilns, it is believed that most pottery was fired on flat ground or in simple depressions. Pottery is distinguished from pottery (over 1200°C) and porcelain (over 1350°C), which are fired at high temperatures, melting the minerals in the clay, such as feldspar and quartz, and creating a glaze-like, hard vessel, with the clay eventually improving. Pottery fired at a higher temperature than pottery but at a lower temperature than pottery (over 1000°C) is called porcelain pottery, and examples of this include Japanese Sueki and Korean Silla ware.

[Yu Aso]

Theory on the origin of pottery

Before pottery existed, the only ways to cook food were to eat it raw, roast it, or put hot stones in a depression in water to raise the temperature. This was when pottery was made, and it was the first major event in which humans applied chemical changes. The use of pottery made it easy to soften previously inedible hard foods by boiling them. The range of edible foods expanded significantly. This groundbreaking technological innovation was even recognized as a period of transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic era.

The theoretical origin of pottery includes the imitation theory of containers such as gourds and leather bags, which is typified by the theory that pottery was first made by coating a basket base with clay and baking it, and the theory that links bread making and pottery making and explains the similarity of the manufacturing process. On the other hand, there is a position that emphasizes the facts of archaeological excavations. At the Ganj-i-Dare site in Iran, which dates back 8,000 to 9,000 years, pottery that was fixed to the ground was excavated. On the other hand, a movable boiling vessel is the oldest bean-shaped pottery in Japan, excavated from the Senpukuji Cave in Nagasaki Prefecture, and is 12,000 years old according to radiocarbon dating. At present, the oldest pottery in Japan is also the oldest pottery in the world, but the origin of pottery in various parts of the world cannot be explained by a single origin theory. A multiple origin theory, which considers that pottery arose based on different causes in each region under different conditions and natural environments, is probably more appropriate.

[Yu Aso]

Pottery manufacturing method

The process of pottery production is assumed based on observation of actual objects, ethnographic knowledge, and experimental archaeology. Usually, the process involves the preparation of the base, shaping, preparation, application of design, drying, and firing.

A wide variety of clay bodies can be created depending on the refinement and selection of the clay or the type of additives used. Also, specific additives reflect the region or era of the pottery and form a major characteristic of the pottery.

Pottery molding methods are broadly divided into those that use a potter's wheel and those that do not. A rudimentary pottery wheel has a turntable, but much prehistoric pottery is made using methods that do not use a wheel at all, such as hand-kneading, wheel-stacking, rolling, and stamping. In archaeology, because the whole is estimated from the observation of small fragments, it is easy to think that each method is a whole individual technology, but according to ethnic examples, there are also combinations of two methods.

The adjustments made to the shape include making the vessel wall thinner, flattening the surface, and creating a dense or rough surface. The above-mentioned goals are achieved by applying fingertips, cloth, leather, bone, stone, shells, split boards, bamboo, leaves, etc. to the surface of the vessel and stroking, scraping, scratching, polishing, and painting.

In order to enhance the effect of the design, techniques such as sunken design, raised design, painted design, colored design, drawing, pigment filling, and inlay are used.

Drying is done after the pottery's shape is completed and the pattern is applied. Pottery with a dense base is dried slowly in the shade, while pottery with a rough base is dried quickly in direct sunlight.

The color tone of the pottery surface changes depending on whether or not a kiln is used and the firing method.

[Yu Aso]

Uses of pottery

The names of the pottery body and each part are based on the idea that the overall shape of the pottery is likened to a human body, with the part through which things are put in and taken out called the "mouth," the lowest end the "bottom," and the part in between called the "body." Changes in each part result in changes to the overall shape, and pots are classified into types such as deep bowls, shallow bowls, plates, jars, pots, and high bowls.

Japan's Jomon pottery developed from a deep bowl shape as its basic form, and over time, various shapes evolved. Yayoi pottery can be seen evolving into the main types of pottery, such as storage jars, cooking jars, serving bowls, and high bowls. A distinction can also be made between everyday items (practical items) and items used for rituals and burials. In other words, the shape and size are closely related to their use, and there are various variations such as hanging handle shapes, vessel pedestals, lamps, and incense burners, and there are even jar coffins for human burial. However, pottery played an important role as everyday furniture.

In archaeological research, particular emphasis is placed on pottery, which was an intimate part of daily life. This is because it does not decay over time and large quantities are expected to be excavated and discovered. In addition to the abundance of material, it is also sensitive to the characteristics of the era and region. In some cases, it is possible to understand cultural historical meaning by combining language dialects with regional differences in pottery.

[Yu Aso]

[References] | Jomon culture | Sue ware | Hajiki ware | Yayoi culture

Jomon pottery (deep cylindrical bowl)
Middle Jomon period, height 69.8cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art

Jomon pottery (deep cylindrical bowl)

Jomon pottery (deep bowl with handle)
Late Jomon period, height 49cm. Courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago .

Jomon pottery (deep bowl with handle)

Jomon pottery (deep bowl)
Late to Final Jomon period, height 42.5cm, owned by the Art Institute of Chicago ">

Jomon pottery (deep bowl)

Jomon pottery (jars)
Late Jomon period, height 20cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art ">

Jomon pottery (jars)

Yayoi pottery (storage jars)
Yayoi period (100 BC to 100 AD) Height 40.6 cm . Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art .

Yayoi pottery (storage jars)

Yayoi pottery (jars)
Yayoi period (2nd to 4th century) Height: 27.3 cm . Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art .

Yayoi pottery (jars)

Sueki horizontal bottle
Kofun period (late 6th century) Height: 37.1 cm. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art .

Sueki horizontal bottle

Sueki long-necked jar
Kofun period, height 28.6cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art ">

Sueki long-necked jar

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

小石や砂などの混ぜ物をつなぎとした粘土を素材に形づくり、焼き上げた容器。日本の縄文土器、弥生(やよい)土器、土師器(はじき)がその実例である。土器の焼成温度は600～900℃で一般に低く、後代の構造的な窯で焼いた陶磁器とは異なり、多くは平地または簡単な凹地(くぼち)で焼いたと推定される。焼成温度が高く、胎土(たいど)中の長石や石英などの鉱物が溶けて釉薬(ゆうやく)をかけた状態となり、ついには胎土も改良されてガラス質の光沢ある非常に硬い容器となる陶器（1200℃以上）や磁器（1350℃以上）とは区別される。また土器よりは高温で陶器よりは低温（1000℃以上）で焼かれたものは陶質土器とよばれるが、日本の須恵器(すえき)、朝鮮の新羅(しらぎ)焼がこれにあたる。

［麻生　優］

土器起源論

食物の調理法は、土器が存在しない段階では、生(なま)か、焼くか、焼け石をくぼみの水に入れて温度を上げる程度の方法しかなかった。ここに土器づくりがおこり、これはまさに人類が化学変化を応用した最初の大事件であった。以後、土器の使用により、いままで食べられなかった固い食物を柔らかくする煮炊きが容易になった。食物の可食範囲は著しく拡大した。その画期的な技術革新を重視して、旧石器時代から新石器時代への変革期と認めたことさえあった。

　理論的起源論には、バスケットを土台に粘土を塗り、焼いた土器づくりを最初とする説に代表されるヒョウタン、皮袋などの容器模倣説と、パンづくりと土器づくりとを関連させて、製作工程の類似から説く説とがある。これに対し、考古学上の発掘事実を重視する立場がある。イランにある8000～9000年前のガンジ・ダレ遺跡からは、大地に固定して据え付けた土器が出土した。一方、移動可能な煮沸(しゃふつ)用容器は、長崎県泉福寺(せんぷくじ)洞穴出土の日本最古の豆粒文(とうりゅうもん)土器で、放射性炭素法年代測定によると1万2000年前のものである。現在のところ、日本最古の土器は同時に世界最古の土器となるが、世界各地の土器起源を単一起源説で説明はできない。おそらく異なった条件や自然環境のなかで、各地域それぞれの原因に基づいて発生したとみる多元説が妥当であろう。

［麻生　優］

土器の製法

土器の製作工程は、実物の観察と民族学的な知見と実験考古学とによって想定される。通常は、素地(きじ)作製、成形、調整、施文、乾燥、焼成の手順で進められる。

　粘土の精粗と選別または混和材の種類によって、多種多様な胎土がつくられ、また特異な混和材は地域性や時代性を表し、その土器の一大特徴を形成する。

　土器成形法は轆轤(ろくろ)の使用と未使用とに大別される。轆轤の初歩的なものには回転台があるが、多くの先史時代土器は、手捏(てづく)ね法、輪積み法、巻上げ法、型押し法などのまったく轆轤を使わない方法による。考古学では、小破片の観察で全体を推定するため、各方法が単独で一個体の技術全体であると思いがちであるが、民族例によれば二方法の組合せもある。

　器壁を薄くし、器面を平らにし、器面の緻密(ちみつ)さや粗面の形成を目的にして形を整える調整がある。指先、布、革、骨、石、貝殻、割り板、竹、葉などを器面にあてがい、なでる、削る、ひっかく、磨く、塗るなどの作業をして、前記の目的を達する。

　施文効果をあげるため、沈文、浮文、塗彩、彩文、描画、顔料充填(がんりょうじゅうてん)、象眼(ぞうがん)などの手法を用いる。

　乾燥は、土器の形が完成し、文様が施されたあとで行われる。緻密な素地のものは日陰で時間をかけるが、粗放な素地のものは直射日光で短時間に乾燥させる。

　窯の使用の有無や焼成の方法で、土器面の色調に変化が生ずる。

［麻生　優］

土器の用途

土器の本体および各部名は、土器全体の形を人体に見立てて、ものを出し入れする部分を「口」、最下端部を「底」、その間を「胴」とよぶ。各部の変化によって全形の変化が生まれ、深鉢、浅鉢、皿、甕(かめ)、壺(つぼ)、高坏(たかつき)などの種類に区別される。

　日本の縄文土器は、深鉢形を基本形態として発達し、時代を追って各種の器形分化をみせた。弥生土器は、貯蔵用の壺、煮炊きの甕、盛り付けの鉢、高坏の主要器種分化がみられる。また日用品（実用品）と祭祀(さいし)・埋葬用とが区別できる。つまり形と大きさとは、その用途と深くかかわっており、吊手(つりて)形、器台、ランプ、香炉形など各種の変形があるが、甕棺として人体埋葬用のものさえある。しかし土器はなんといっても日用什器(じゅうき)の重要な役割を担っていた。

　考古学研究では、生活に密着していた土器をとくに重視する。長い間に朽ち果てることもなく、多量の出土・発見が見込まれるからである。資料が豊富なうえに、時代的、地域的な特徴を敏感に反映している。ときには言語の方言と、土器の地域差とを重ね合わせて、文化史的意味をくみ取ることもできる。

［麻生　優］

[参照項目] | 縄文文化 | 須恵器 | 土師器 | 弥生文化

縄文土器（円筒形深鉢）
縄文時代中期　高さ69.8cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

縄文土器（円筒形深鉢）

縄文土器（把手付深鉢）
縄文時代後期　高さ49cmシカゴ美術研究所所蔵">

縄文土器（把手付深鉢）

縄文土器（深鉢）
縄文時代後期～晩期　高さ42.5cmシカゴ美術研究所所蔵">

縄文土器（深鉢）

縄文土器（壺）
縄文時代後期　高さ20cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

縄文土器（壺）

弥生土器（貯蔵壺）
弥生時代（紀元前100～紀元後100年ころ）　高さ40.6cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵">