A self-propelled electric railcar that carries passengers and freight. A train consisting of several or a dozen cars and controlled as a whole is also called an electric railcar, but in this case, trailer cars and control cars that do not have a driving motor are also included in the train. Among electric railcars, those equipped with a driving motor are called motor cars. [Gentaro Nishio and Yoshihiko Sato] structureIt consists of mechanical parts such as the car body, bogies, power transmission device, and brake device, and electrical parts such as the main motor, control device, current collector, etc. It is basically the same as an electric locomotive, but the car body above the floor is used for passengers, baggage, and crew, and most of the drive and control equipment is installed under the floor of the car. The current collected by most private railways and JR in urban areas is 1500V DC, while some subways and private railways using third-rail collection (a method of collecting current from a third rail along the track) use 750V DC (Osaka Municipal Subway, Yokohama Municipal Transportation Bureau) or 600V DC, while JR and Tsukuba Express have AC and DC, and AC/DC dual-purpose trains are often used. It goes without saying that high-voltage power lines should be wired so that passengers cannot touch them, and low-voltage and auxiliary circuits should also be insulated and placed in conduits. Subway trains in particular use materials that meet the AA standard for the interior and electrical wiring of the car body based on the "Ministry Ordinance Prescribing Technical Standards for Railways" (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Ordinance No. 151 of 2001) to make them non-flammable. In the case of a method of collecting current from the roof through a pantograph, etc., there is a protection against train fires even if the overhead electric wire breaks and hangs down, and lightning arresters are also installed. For passengers to enjoy a comfortable ride, noise and vibration from the power unit and auxiliary equipment must not be transmitted. In particular, express trains that run long distances are designed with complete soundproofing and vibration-proofing between the exterior body panels and the interior decorative panels, as well as the ceiling and floor. The control system is basically the same as that of electric locomotives, and the DC circuits of AC/DC electric trains are the same as those of DC electric trains. However, because the motors of each electric car are controlled from the main controller of the leading car, they are equipped with an automatic advance device to reduce the number of control circuits, and their structure is relatively simple. Speed control in the driver's cab is switched by a low-voltage circuit, and the high-voltage circuit of the main motor is indirectly controlled via a relay. When an excessive current is generated in the main circuit or the voltage rises too much, a protective circuit breaker is activated. For passenger cars, a low floor is desirable because it is easier to get on and off and is more comfortable to live in. Therefore, various considerations are required for the underfloor equipment of electrical equipment. In trains that are designed specifically for steep gradients, such as mountain railways, the control resistors are large, so they are sometimes placed on the roof for cooling purposes. Since the 1990s, inverter-controlled induction motor drives have become widespread, and computer-based multiplex transmission has come to be used for in-train control and information transmission. Furthermore, as equipment has become more electronic and computerized, equipment monitoring systems have been developed, and not only emergency measures in the event of a breakdown but some regular inspections are now carried out using monitoring systems, contributing to labor savings in maintenance and improved reliability. Passenger train telephones using commercial wireless communication equipment were also installed on Shinkansen and private express trains, but with the spread of mobile phones, their role has been fulfilled and the number of installations is decreasing. [Gentaro Nishio and Yoshihiko Sato] Various trainsWhen electric trains were first developed, they ran on a single rail track, and were smaller in both power and speed than electric locomotives. They were also considered unsuitable for long-distance operation because they had vibration and noise sources under the floor. However, as a result of technological innovation, electric trains are now used for a wide range of purposes. Regular railways include commuter trains, suburban medium-distance trains, and long-distance express and limited express trains. There are also sleeper express trains. For track and light railways, the LRV (Light Rail Vehicle), which is faster and more comfortable than the traditional streetcar, is used for urban transportation in countries around the world. All subways are electric trains, and some have rubber-tired vehicles. Monorails, new transportation systems, and trackless vehicles called trolleybuses are also types of electric trains. Mountain cable cars (steel cable railways) and ropeways (ropeways) do not have power in the vehicles themselves, but are operated by electricity, so they can be considered electric trains in the broad sense. Magnetically levitated and air-levitated linear motor-driven vehicles should also be included in the category of electric trains. Although it uses rails and wheels, linear motor subways, which have the primary coil of an induction motor mounted on the vehicle and the secondary conductor (rotor) laid on the ground, can reduce the cross section of the tunnel and ease the restrictions on gradient and curve radius, so they are used on some subway lines in Osaka, Tokyo, Sendai, Fukuoka and Yokohama. The vehicles used here are also classified as electric trains. [Gentaro Nishio and Yoshihiko Sato] Electric train and electric locomotiveElectric trains are more often operated as trains of 2 to 10 cars connected by couplers and connecting rods, rather than as single cars. In Japan, to make up for the lack of track capacity and terminal turnaround facilities and increase transportation capacity, electric trains, which are easy to turn around and have high acceleration and deceleration speeds, are the mainstream, far surpassing trains that pull passenger and freight cars with locomotives. Long electric trains have high unit prices per car and vehicle maintenance costs, but the following advantages of electric trains have made the shift to electric trains possible despite these disadvantages. (1) Since the power is distributed to each car, the axle load is evened out, the load on the track is lighter, and construction costs are more economical. (2) Because the power is distributed, the total output can be increased reasonably, allowing high speeds and acceleration with little wheel slip and braking, making it suitable for high-speed trains and commuter trains. (3) Since there are many power shafts, electric brakes can be used efficiently, and the energy-saving effect of regenerative braking is significant. (4) The number of cars coupled can be changed depending on the volume of freight, allowing trains of an appropriate output to be formed. (5) Even if a part of a train breaks down, disruptions to train operations can be minimized by electrically disconnecting the affected car. (6) It is easy to operate trains by turning them around at terminal stations, which allows for increased train operation frequency. However, in Europe and America, the allowable axle load of the tracks is large, and there is ample capacity for the tracks and terminals, so electric trains have not been actively introduced. Instead, a system of push-drive operation, in which a passenger car with a driver's cab is at the front of the train and a locomotive is at the end of the train, has been developed and spread, achieving transport capacity equal to or greater than that of Japan's long electric trains. In Europe, for suburban and long-distance trains, only motor cars are defined as electric trains, except for fixed-formation trains, and trailers and control cars are classified as passenger cars. For this reason, the maintenance and operation of electric trains is carried out separately from passenger cars, using the same system and organization as locomotives. In Japan, the maintenance and operation of electric trains is carried out by a different organization from that of locomotives and passenger cars, so there is no interchangeability of vehicles between electric trains and passenger trains. [Gentaro Nishio and Yoshihiko Sato] History and OutlookThe first electric vehicle was an electric locomotive exhibited by E. W. Siemens of Germany at the Berlin Industrial Exhibition in 1879. Two years later, he operated a 36-seater third-rail streetcar between Lichtafelde Grosse and Lichtafel, on the outskirts of Berlin. In 1890, this streetcar was converted to an overhead line system and was used by Berliners until 1967. Streetcars were simply a conversion of the power source of the horse-drawn trams that were the urban transportation network at the time, and the carriages looked exactly like stagecoaches. As electric trains developed, they became larger and faster, and began to be used for passenger transport on regular railways. The London Underground, which opened in 1890, was pulled by a steam locomotive, but in 1896 the subway in Budapest, the capital of Hungary, was converted to electric trains. In Budapest and London, methods were used to make the carriages smaller and minimize their cross-section from the time the subways were established. In large American cities such as New York and Chicago, elevated trains were developed from the 1870s, preceding subways. However, they lost popularity due to noise and spoiling the cityscape, and were completely abolished in New York, with only a few remaining in Chicago. In European cities, many of the transportation businesses of national or private suburban railways, public subways, streetcars, and buses are integrated into metropolitan transport associations, and fares are unified to provide convenience to users. In Japan, electric trains purchased from the United States were put into operation at the 3rd Domestic Industrial Exposition in Ueno, Tokyo in 1890 (Meiji 23). In 1895, commercial operations began between Shichijo Station in Kyoto and Fushimi Aburakake, followed by the Nagoya Electric Railroad (now Nagoya Railroad), Daishi Electric Railroad (now Keikyu Corporation), Odawara Electric Railroad (now Hakone Tozan Railway), Hoshu Electric Railroad (now Oita Kotsu), and Enoshima Electric Railroad (now Enoshima Electric Railway), and by 1903 (Meiji 36), streetcars had appeared in Tokyo and Osaka. From the Russo-Japanese War to World War I, urban populations increased and urban areas expanded significantly. In response to the new demand for commuting to work and school, and for connecting within cities, electric trains with large capacity that could transport people at high speed on dedicated tracks and railways began to be adopted by national and private railways, mainly in Tokyo and Osaka. Private railways with electric trains opened one after another in Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya, and other areas, and Nankai Railway (now Nankai Electric Railway), Tobu Railway, Musashino Railway (later merged with Seibu Railway), and Seibu Railway, which opened with steam railways, also electrified and replaced steam locomotive-pulled passenger trains with electric trains. These private railways operated high-speed trains from the early Showa period, and even operated at speeds of 120 kilometers per hour. Even after World War II, private railways such as Nankai Electric Railway, Kintetsu Railway, Nagoya Railroad, Odakyu Electric Railway, Seibu Railway, Tobu Railway, and Keisei Electric Railway operated frequent, paid express trains with reserved seats connecting major cities and tourist destinations, including airport connections. In 1927 (Showa 2), a subway line opened in Tokyo between Ueno and Asakusa. Construction of subway lines was halted after the extension of the Ginza Line between Ueno and Shibuya, but since the 1950s after World War II, subways have been built in major cities across the country, and have become the main form of urban transportation, replacing streetcars. Furthermore, in 1964 (Showa 39), the first practical monorail opened between Hamamatsucho and Haneda in Tokyo. In the 1950s, when the post-World War II reconstruction was completed, centralized electric trains with long-distance and medium-distance configurations began to operate on the electrified main lines of the Japanese National Railways, replacing passenger trains pulled by electric locomotives. The Shonan Electric Train, which began operating between Tokyo and Numazu in March 1950, was highly praised for its high speed, convenient departure and arrival at turnaround stations, and high operating frequency, and quickly became the mainstream of railway vehicles. After that, when the full electrification of the Japanese National Railways Tokaido Main Line was completed, express train operation began between Tokyo, Osaka, and Kobe in November 1958, and it spread to main lines nationwide. In response to the expansion of cities and the increase in tourists, both the Japanese National Railways and private railways further expanded their electric train networks, and promoted improvements in service and transportation capacity by shortening the intervals between trains, increasing the number of cars coupled together, increasing speed, and quadrupling tracks. In October 1964, the standard gauge Shinkansen train began operating between Tokyo and Shin-Osaka at a maximum speed of 210 km per hour. The opening of the Shinkansen prompted a worldwide rethinking of high-speed rail transport by electric trains. In 1966, the stainless steel electric train Metroliner began operating between New York and Washington in the United States, and this is thought to have influenced the increase in streamlined electric train express trains such as the Swiss-made Cizalpan and the Italian-made Setebello on Europe's TEE (international express train network). One such example was the international airport express train (ET403) operated by the German Federal Railway (now Deutsche Bahn) in cooperation with Lufthansa. France and Germany have developed and operated the TGV (T-G-V) and ICE (International Express) high-speed trains, which use a centralized power system rather than an electric train system. Deutsche Bahn has been operating the electric train system ICE3 since 2000. With the development of power electronics, electric train drive motors have changed from resistance-controlled DC series motors to VVVF inverter-controlled AC induction motors since the 1990s. As already mentioned, linear motor subways using rails and wheels are also being used in various places. Aichi Rapid Transit's Tobu Kyuryo Line is currently in commercial operation as a magnetic levitation/linear motor propulsion line. [Gentaro Nishio and Yoshihiko Sato] "Colored World Railways" edited by Nishio Gentarou (1975, Yama-to-Keikoku-sha) " ▽ "Colored Japanese Railways" by Nishio Gentarou and Hirota Naoyuki (1977, Yama-to-Keikoku-sha)" ▽ "High-Speed Railways of the World" by Sato Yoshihiko (1998, Grand Prix Publishing)" ▽ "Guide to Commuter Trains of the World" by Sato Yoshihiko (2001, Seizando Shoten)" ▽ "Encyclopedia of All JR Vehicles" by Inoue Hirokazu and Haraguchi Takayuki (2000, Sekai Bunka-sha) [Reference items] | | | | | | | | |©Shogakukan "> Train types and symbols (JR) Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
利用客や荷物を乗せて自走する鉄道の電気車。数両ないし十数両を編成して総括制御する電車列車も電車とよぶが、この場合には編成中に駆動用電動機をもたない付随車や制御車も含む。電車の車両のうち、駆動用電動機を備えたものを電動車という。 [西尾源太郎・佐藤芳彦] 構造車体・台車・動力伝達装置・ブレーキ装置などの機械部分と、主電動機・制御装置・集電装置などの電気部分で構成される。基本的には電気機関車と同じであるが、床上の車体部分は乗客・荷物・乗務員用にあて、駆動や制御用の機器はほとんど車両の床下に設置する構造になっている。 集電電流は、ほとんどの私鉄とJRの都市域は1500ボルト直流、第三軌条集電(線路に沿う第三のレールから集電する方式)の地下鉄と私鉄の一部は750ボルト直流(大阪市高速電気軌道、横浜市交通局)または600ボルト直流、JRとつくばエクスプレスには交流と直流があり、交直両用電車が使われることが多い。高圧電線回路を乗客に触れない配線とするのは当然として、低圧・補助回路も絶縁して電線管に入れる配慮も必要である。とくに地下鉄電車は「鉄道に関する技術上の基準を定める省令」(平成13年国土交通省令第151号)に基づいたAA基準規格の材料を車体内装や電気配線に使用し、不燃構造化している。集電を屋根上からパンタグラフなどを通して行う方式の場合、架空電車線が切れて垂れ下がっても電車火災にならないように保護し、避雷装置も設備されている。旅客の快適な乗り心地のためには、動力装置や補助機器からの騒音・振動が伝わってはならない。とくに長距離運転をする特急電車などでは、車体外板と内装化粧板の間、天井、床などを完全な防音・防振構造とする設計が行われる。 制御方式は基本的に電気機関車と同じで、交直流電車も直流回路は直流電車と変わりない。しかし、先頭車の主幹制御器から各電動車の電動機を総括制御するので制御回路が少なくてすむよう自動進段装置を備え、構造も比較的簡単である。また、運転室での速度制御は低電圧回路で切り換え、継電器(リレー)などを介して主電動機の高圧回路を間接制御する。主回路に過大な電流が生じたり、電圧が過度にあがったときには保護用の遮断器が作動する。旅客車としては床が低いほうが乗降に便利で居住性もよいので、床下寸法は低いことが望ましい。したがって電気機器の床下艤装(ぎそう)には各種の配慮を要する。登山電車のような急勾配(こうばい)専用の電車では制御用の抵抗器が大きくなるので、冷却効果も考えて屋上に配置する場合もある。 1990年代からインバーター制御誘導電動機駆動が普及し、列車内の制御および情報伝送もコンピュータを使用した多重伝送が使用されるようになった。また、機器の電子化、情報化に伴い、機器のモニタリングシステムも開発され、故障時の応急処置はもとより、定期検査の一部もモニタリングシステムで行うようになり、保守の省力化と信頼性向上に寄与している。業務用の無線通信設備を利用した旅客用の列車電話も新幹線や私鉄の特急電車に設備されていたが、携帯電話の普及で、その役割を終え、設置数は減少している。 [西尾源太郎・佐藤芳彦] 電車の各種開発当初の電車は路面軌条の上を1両単独で自走する、出力・速度ともに電気機関車より小規模の車両で、振動・騒音の発生源を床下に装備しているため長距離運転には向かないとされていた。しかし、技術革新の結果、現在の電車の用途は広範囲である。一般鉄道でも、通勤電車、近郊中距離用電車、長距離特急・急行用電車などがある。また、寝台特急用の電車も運行している。軌道・軽鉄道用としては、従来の路面電車から進歩して、高速で乗り心地のよいLRV(Light Rail Vehicle)が世界各国の都市交通に使用されている。地下鉄道もすべてが電車で、ゴムタイヤ車輪の車両もある。モノレールや新交通システム、トロリーバスといわれる無軌条車も電車の一種である。登山用のケーブルカー(鋼索鉄道)やロープウェー(索道)は車両自体に動力を有しないが電気で運転されるので広義の電車と考えられる。磁気浮上や空気浮上のリニアモーター駆動車両も電車の部類に入れるべきであろう。レールと車輪を使うものの、誘導電動機の一次コイルを車両に搭載し、二次導体(回転子)を地上に敷設したリニアモーター地下鉄は、トンネル断面を小さくでき、勾配(こうばい)や曲線半径の制約を緩和できるので、大阪、東京、仙台、福岡および横浜の地下鉄の一部線区に採用されている。ここに使用する車両も電車として分類される。 [西尾源太郎・佐藤芳彦] 電車列車と電気機関車電車は1両単独で運転する場合よりも、連結器、連結棒などによって連結した2~十数両の列車として運転することが多い。日本では、線路容量およびターミナルの折り返し設備の不足をカバーして輸送力を増やすため、折り返し運転が容易で加減速度の高い電車列車が、機関車で客・貨車を牽引(けんいん)する列車を圧倒して主流を占めている。長大編成の電車列車は1両当りの車両単価や車両保守費が高くなるが、その不利を圧して電車化が推進されたのは、電車列車の次のような長所によるものである。 (1)動力が各車両に分散しているので軸重が平均化し、軌道の負担荷重が少なくてすみ建設費が経済的である。 (2)動力を分散しているので総出力を無理なく増すことができ、高速・高加速が可能で空転・ブレーキ滑走が少なく、高速列車・通勤列車に適する。 (3)動力軸が多いので電気ブレーキが効率的に使え、電力回生ブレーキの省エネルギー効果が大きい。 (4)輸送量に応じて連結両数を変え、適当な出力規模の列車を編成できる。 (5)列車の一部分が故障しても、その車両を電気的に遮断することによって列車運転の支障を少なくできる。 (6)終端駅での折り返し運転が容易で、列車の運転頻度を高めることができる。 しかし、ヨーロッパやアメリカでは線路の許容軸重も大きく、線路やターミナルの容量に余裕があるので、電車列車を積極的に導入するには至らなかった。むしろ、運転台付客車を先頭に機関車を列車の最後尾とする推進運転のシステムを開発・普及し、日本の長大編成の電車列車と同等以上の輸送力を実現している。なお、ヨーロッパでは、近郊列車や長距離列車については、固定編成式を除いて電動車のみを電車と定義し、付随車や制御車は客車に分類している。このため、電車の保守や運用は、客車とは別に機関車と同じシステムと組織で行われる。日本では、電車の保守や運用は、機関車および客車とは異なった組織で行われるので、電車列車と客車列車の間には車両の互換性がない。 [西尾源太郎・佐藤芳彦] 沿革と展望ドイツのE・W・ジーメンスが1879年のベルリン勧業博覧会に出品した電気機関車が電気車の初めで、2年後にはベルリン郊外のリヒタフェルデ・グロース―リヒタフェル間に、36人乗り第三軌条集電方式の路面電車を運行した。この電車は1890年に架線集電方式に改められ、1967年までベルリン市民の足として利用された。路面電車は当時の都市交通網の馬車鉄道の動力だけの変換で、車両も見たところ乗合馬車そのままであった。電車の発達につれて大型化・高速化が進み、一般鉄道の旅客用に使われるようになる。1890年に開業したロンドンの地下鉄は蒸気機関車牽引式であったが、1896年のハンガリーの首都ブダペストの地下鉄からは電車になった。ブダペストやロンドンでは、地下鉄創設当時から車両を小型にして断面を最小に抑える手法が講じられていた。ニューヨークやシカゴなどアメリカの大都会では1870年代から高架電車が地下鉄に先んじて発達した。しかし、騒音と市街の景観を損なうことで人気を失い、ニューヨークでは全廃され、シカゴにわずかに残っている。ヨーロッパの都市では、国鉄あるいは私鉄の近郊線、公営地下鉄、路面電車およびバスの運輸事業を統合して都市域運輸連合とし、運賃も統一して利用者の便宜を図っているところが多い。 日本では1890年(明治23)東京・上野の第3回内国勧業博覧会でアメリカから購入した電車が運転された。1895年には京都の七条停車場前―伏見油掛(ふしみあぶらかけ)間の営業運転が開始され、続いて名古屋電気鉄道(現、名古屋鉄道)、大師電気鉄道(現、京浜急行電鉄)、小田原電気鉄道(現、箱根登山鉄道)、豊州電気鉄道(現、大分交通)、江之島電気鉄道(現、江ノ島電鉄)などが運転を始め、1903年(明治36)には東京、大阪にも路面電車が登場した。 日露戦争後から第一次世界大戦にかけて、都市人口が増大し都市圏は著しく拡大した。新しく発生した通勤・通学、市内連絡などの需要に応じて、専用の軌道や鉄道を高速で輸送する収容能力の大きい電車が、東京や大阪を中心に国鉄や私鉄で採用されるようになった。東京、大阪、名古屋などで電車専用鉄道の私鉄が相次いで開業し、蒸気鉄道で開業した南海鉄道(現、南海電気鉄道)、東武鉄道、武蔵野鉄道(のちに西武鉄道と合併)、西武鉄道なども電化し、蒸気機関車牽引の客車列車を電車に置き換えた。これらの私鉄は昭和初期から高速電車を運行し、時速120キロメートル運転も行われていた。第二次世界大戦後も、南海電鉄、近畿日本鉄道、名古屋鉄道、小田急電鉄、西武鉄道、東武鉄道および京成電鉄の私鉄各社が、空港連絡も含め主要都市や観光地を結んで、座席指定制の有料特急電車を多頻度で運行している。 1927年(昭和2)東京の上野―浅草間に地下鉄が開業した。地下鉄の建設は、銀座線の上野―渋谷間の延長以後中断するが、第二次世界大戦後の1950年代から全国各主要都市で行われ、路面電車にかわる都市交通の主力となっている。さらに1964年(昭和39)には、最初の実用的モノレールが東京の浜松町―羽田間に開業した。 第二次世界大戦後の復興が一段落した1950年代から、国鉄の幹線電化区間で近・中距離長編成の総括制御式電車列車が、電気機関車牽引の旅客列車にかわって運転されるようになった。1950年3月の湘南電車(しょうなんでんしゃ)、東京―沼津間に始まった電車列車は、高速と折り返し駅での発着が便利で運転頻度の高い特性が高く評価されて、一躍鉄道車両の主流となった。その後、国鉄東海道本線の全線電化が完成すると、1958年11月から東京―大阪―神戸間の電車列車こだま号による特急電車運転が開始され、全国の幹線に普及した。国鉄、私鉄ともに、都市の外延化や観光旅客の増加に対応して、さらに電車網を拡大し、運転間隔短縮、連結両数増加、速度向上および複々線化などによるサービス向上と輸送力増強を推進した。 1964年10月、標準軌間による新幹線電車の東京―新大阪間が最高時速210キロメートルで営業運転を開始した。新幹線の開通は世界的に電車による鉄道高速輸送の見直しを促した。1966年、アメリカのニューヨーク―ワシントン間にステンレス鋼製の電車特急メトロライナーが運転を開始し、ヨーロッパのTEE(国際特急列車網)にスイス製のシザルパンやイタリア製のセテベロなどの流線形電車特急が増加したのもその影響とみられる。ドイツ連邦鉄道(現、ドイツ鉄道)がルフトハンザ・ドイツ航空と連携して運行した国際空港連絡特急(ET403)もその一つであった。フランスやドイツは高速列車として、電車方式ではなく動力集中式を採用しTGV(テージェーベー)、ICE(イーツェーエー)を開発し、運行している。ドイツ鉄道は電車方式のICE3を2000年から運行している。 パワーエレクトロニクスの発達により、1990年代から、電車の駆動用電動機は、抵抗制御の直流直巻電動機(ちょくまきでんどうき)からVVVFインバーター制御の交流誘導電動機にかわった。また、すでに述べたように、レールと車輪を用いたリニアモーター地下鉄も各地で採用されている。磁気浮上・リニアモーター推進式の路線としては、愛知高速交通の東部丘陵線が営業運転を行っている。 [西尾源太郎・佐藤芳彦] 『西尾源太郎編『カラー世界の鉄道』(1975・山と渓谷社)』▽『西尾源太郎、広田尚敬著『カラー日本の鉄道』(1977・山と渓谷社)』▽『佐藤芳彦著『世界の高速鉄道』(1998・グランプリ出版)』▽『佐藤芳彦著『世界の通勤電車ガイド』(2001・成山堂書店)』▽『井上広和、原口隆行著『JR全車両大図鑑』(2000・世界文化社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | |©Shogakukan"> 電車の種類と記号(JR) 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
<<: Transfer printing - transfer printing
To depict nature or objects as seen. In Chinese p...
… In the second half of this century, with the de...
… Otogi-zoshi were meant to be read, told, and en...
An ancient Egyptian god. He was a god with many di...
Also called Tsu Domain. During the Edo period, thi...
...The view of culture as an adaptive system sees...
A long-term plan for the national economy implemen...
430 - 480 to 490 A Roman nobleman in late antiquit...
It is one of the main organs of the United Nation...
...It was a powerful sect of Hinayana Buddhism, w...
It is also called the Nio Prajna-e, Nio Sutra-e, ...
… [Yoshio Kayano] [Indian Pluralism] In India, th...
German composer. He studied under F. Hiller at th...
〘Noun〙 A song sung by cowhands while driving their...
...The term Nazi is the plural form of Nazi, an a...