Local government - Local government

Japanese: 地方公共団体 - ちほうこうきょうだんたい

It is an organization that exists based on a certain area, has the residents living in that area as its members, and is authorized to handle local affairs through the self-government of the residents. It has a legal personality separate from the state. Its type and authority vary depending on the political system of the country.

In Japan, they used to be called local bodies, but since the term "local public bodies" was used in Chapter 8 of the Constitution of Japan, they have been called so in law. They are also sometimes called local governments, local autonomous bodies, or simply local governments.

Under the Meiji Constitution, local governments had little substance as autonomous entities, and were treated as subordinate entities to the bureaucratic centralism. After the Second World War, the Constitution of Japan included a chapter on local autonomy, guaranteeing the autonomy of local governments, based on the idea that it is essential for the realization of democracy that local governments be organized and operated in accordance with the principles of group autonomy and resident autonomy. Based on this, the Local Autonomy Law was enacted in 1947 (Showa 22), which stipulates matters related to the types, organization, and operation of local governments, as well as the basic relationship between the national government and local governments.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

History

The changes in Japan's local government system can be divided into the following seven periods.

The first period was the period of large wards and small wards, when the feudal domains were abolished and prefectures were established in 1871 (Meiji 4), and prefectures were unified as the unit, and wards were established as administrative divisions under prefectures in place of the existing counties and towns and villages. These wards were later divided into large wards and small wards, and prefectures were abolished, established, divided and merged several times, but a formal system was established at least.

In the second period, because the system of large districts and small districts was merely a formality that ignored custom, it was amended by three new laws: the 1878 County, Ward, Town and Village Organization Law, the Prefectural Assembly Regulations, and the Local Tax Regulations (the Ward, Town and Village Assembly Law was enacted in 1881). These laws restored the old counties and towns and villages under prefectures, and three prefectures (Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka), five ports (Yokohama, Kobe, Nagasaki, Niigata, Hakodate), and other areas with high population concentrations were made into wards, with the wards and towns and villages becoming autonomous entities. Prefectural assemblies with elected members were established, and wards, towns and villages were allowed to hold ward, town and village councils, laying the foundations for a modern local government system.

The third period was when the city system and town and village system were promulgated in 1888, and the prefecture system and county system in 1890. The county system was abolished in 1923 (Taisho 12), and the prefecture system, city system, and town and village system were also revised many times, but they continued until the Local Autonomy Law was enacted after the end of World War II. The purpose of this local system was to strengthen the foundations of the nation through centralization, and autonomous functions were restricted under the supervision of the national government, resulting in a bureaucratic administration that severely lacked the autonomy of local organizations and the autonomy of local residents.

The fourth period was a time when decentralization was strengthened and the democratization of local administration was promoted under the Constitution of Japan. After the Second World War, the Local Autonomy Law was enacted in 1947, and group autonomy and resident autonomy were strengthened through the decentralization system. Furthermore, important revisions were made to the Local Autonomy Law in 1947, 1948, and 1950, with the aim of expanding and strengthening local autonomy. This was a period in which the ideal form of local autonomy was pursued under the occupation.

The fifth period was when the local autonomy system entered a period of reorganization following the coming into force of the Treaty of Peace with Japan in 1952. The policy of centralization was indicated in major revisions of the Local Autonomy Law in 1952 and 1956, reforms of the police system through major revisions of the Police Law in 1954, and reforms of the Board of Education system in 1956. The Town and Village Merger Promotion Law of 1953 led to the reorganization of cities, towns, and villages over the next five years. Furthermore, the Special Measures Law for Promoting the Reconstruction of Local Government Finances was enacted at the end of 1955, and financial control was strengthened using national aid as a "lever," further promoting centralization in this respect as well. During the period of high economic growth that began around 1960, the trend known as new centralization became evident. In other words, in response to the demands for planning and technological advancement in administration, the state took the lead in such administrative fields as promoting regional development, developing and allocating water resources, improving industrial infrastructure, and building housing. The establishment and strengthening of national local branch offices and the expansion of national public corporations and public agencies into local areas were proposed and implemented.

The sixth period began in the 1970s. In other words, as the distortions of high economic growth became apparent, citizens' and residents' movements arose, supported by values such as the restoration of humanity, environmental protection, and respect for historical culture. Resident participation was advocated, and the "era of the local areas" was proclaimed. Local governments also made an effort to proactively develop new administrative fields and administrative processing methods in order to respond to residents' demands ahead of the national government, and they began to have a real presence as a government that was close to people. In this context, public elections for the mayors of Tokyo's special wards were held in 1975. On the other hand, the centralization that had been promoted since the previous period was promoted in the 1980s in the form of reductions in high-rate subsidies and promotion of local administrative reforms in the process of national fiscal reform, and in 1986, a proposal was made to simplify the mandate lawsuit system (established in 1991) with the aim of strengthening the Prime Minister's administrative power.

The seventh period was the era of decentralization that began in the 1990s. In 1994, the Local Autonomy Law was amended to create a system of wide-area associations and core cities, and in 1995, the Decentralization Promotion Committee was established based on the Decentralization Promotion Law. In April 2000, the Omnibus Decentralization Law based on the recommendations of the same committee came into effect, and the centralized administrative system that had been one of the characteristics since the Meiji era was transformed into a decentralized administrative system. This amendment to the Local Autonomy Law also created a new system of special cities. In 2007, the Decentralization Reform Promotion Committee was established, and the second phase of decentralization reform began.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Types of local governments

There are two types of local public entities: ordinary local public entities and special local public entities.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Ordinary local public entities

Refers to prefectures and cities, towns, and villages. Prefectures are regional public entities that are located between the nation and cities, towns, and villages, and are fully autonomous bodies on an equal footing with cities, towns, and villages. However, as regional public entities that encompass cities, towns, and villages, prefectures are expected to perform functions different from those of cities, towns, and villages, and there are only some differences between them. They do not have a superior or supervisory relationship with cities, towns, and villages, as was the case under the Meiji Constitution. There are currently one metropolis, one prefecture, two prefectures, and 43 prefectures. The differences in the names of prefectures, prefectures, and prefectures are merely historical, and there is no legal difference between prefectures (Osaka Prefecture and Kyoto Prefecture) and prefectures. However, Hokkaido has some exceptions to the affairs it handles due to its history, and it has been designated as a specific regional entity under the Act on Promotion of Special Zones for the Regional State System, which came into effect in 2007. Although metropolitan governments are no different from prefectures in terms of their city, town, and village boundaries, in areas with special wards (23 wards), metropolitan governments also have the characteristics of cities, and therefore the powers of the special wards are limited from the perspective of comprehensive centralization of metropolitan administration.

Municipalities are the most basic local government entities in Japan, and in principle, they cooperate with prefectures in carrying out local government administration. When handling administrative tasks, care is taken to avoid conflict between the two, and tasks that require wide-area processing are exclusively the responsibility of prefectures, and are excluded from the responsibility of municipalities. There is no difference in nature between cities, towns, and villages. A city is an area with a population of 50,000 or more and certain urban requirements (or an area with a population of 30,000 or more that applies to the special provisions for municipal mergers), and a town is an area that meets the requirements set out by the prefecture's ordinance. There are no special requirements for villages by law. Among cities, cities with a population of 500,000 or more designated by government ordinance are called government ordinance-designated cities (Yokohama, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, Kitakyushu, Sapporo, Kawasaki, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Sendai, Chiba, Saitama, Shizuoka, Sakai, Niigata, Hamamatsu, Okayama: in order of designation), and they largely delegate tasks that are normally handled by prefectures, and they establish special provisions for their supervision and the establishment of wards (administrative districts). Core cities are cities with a population of 300,000 or more. Their authority is almost the same as that of ordinance-designated cities, but they are not required to establish administrative districts. As of April 2009, there were 41 cities in this category. Special cities can be designated as cities with a population of 200,000 or more. They have special provisions such as the right to set environmental standards for noise, odors, vibrations, etc., and the right to grant permission for development activities. As of April 2009, there were 41 cities in this category.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Special local government entities

This refers to special wards, associations of local governments, property districts, and local development corporations.

Special wards are the 23 wards of Tokyo, which have historically been classified as special local public entities within the metropolitan area, but in light of the fact that they form a large city as a whole, the rules for cities apply to them in principle. The ward mayors were initially elected, and in 1964 (Showa 39) they were selected by the ward assemblies, but in 1974 they were again elected by the public. In addition, with the revision of the Local Autonomy Law in 2000, they were designated as "basic local public entities" although they are special local public entities.

Local government unions are established by two or more local governments to jointly handle their affairs. As of July 2008, there were partial affairs unions (1,664), wide-area federations (111), full affairs unions (0), and town hall affairs unions (0).

A property district is a part of a city, town, village, or special ward that owns property or has structures, such as irrigation canals, community centers, and forests.

The Regional Development Corporation was established so that several local governments could entrust the implementation of projects based on comprehensive plans.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

residents

Refers to the human element that constitutes a local government. Anyone who has an address within the area of a city, town, or village (including special wards) is a resident of that city, town, or village and the prefecture that encompasses it. Regardless of race or nationality, residents have the right to receive equal services from local governments and are obligated to share the burden of these services. In addition, residents who are Japanese nationals have the right to vote, the right to request the establishment, amendment, or repeal of ordinances, the right to request an audit of affairs, the right to request the dissolution of the assembly, and the right to request dismissal (the right of recall).

In recent years, bills to grant local voting rights to foreigners have been submitted to the Diet on a number of occasions, but as of April 2009, none have been enacted. During this time, local governments have been reviewing restrictions on foreigners becoming public servants and establishing conferences of foreign citizen representatives.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Powers of local governments

The Constitution of Japan grants local governments the power to manage their property, handle affairs, and execute administrative functions, as well as the power to enact ordinances within the scope of the law (Article 94).

The powers of local governments constitute the content of autonomy, and consist of the power of the local assembly to enact ordinances, the power of the mayor to enact, amend or repeal rules (autonomous legislative power), the power to determine organization independently (autonomous organizational power), and financial powers such as the levy and collection of local taxes (autonomous financial power).

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Local government affairs

Local governments handle affairs necessary for their existence or to promote the welfare of their residents (autonomous affairs), as well as affairs that are fundamentally the responsibility of the national government but that the national government must ensure are handled appropriately as specified by law (statutory entrusted affairs).

Local government affairs, also called proper affairs, include affairs related to the organization, finances, and legislation of local governments, the establishment and management of schools, nurseries, hospitals, markets, vocational training centers, and slaughterhouses, various businesses such as burial and cremation, and garbage and sewage treatment, as well as public enterprises such as buses, subways, and gas businesses. Statutory entrusted affairs are those that require particular attention from the national government, such as the management of national highways and first-class rivers, and public assistance, and each minister is allowed to determine the standards (treatment standards) to be followed for these affairs.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Local government organizations: dual representation system

The Constitution of Japan stipulates that local public entities shall have an assembly as their deliberative body, and that the members of the assembly and the mayor shall be directly elected by public vote (Article 93, dual representative system). The Local Autonomy Law, based on this provision, adopts a chief executive system, and sets the assembly as the decision-making body and the mayor as the executive body in opposition to each other as bodies based on the will of the residents, with consideration given to ensuring proper self-governance through mutual checks and balances.

Enforcement Agency

(1) The head of each prefecture is the governor, and he is assisted by vice governors, officials, and specialist committee members. Under the Meiji Constitution, the governor of Tokyo, the governor of Hokkaido, and the governors of each prefecture were national government officials appointed by the Emperor.

Under the current constitution, prefectural governors are elected by direct popular vote, and Japanese nationals over the age of 30 are eligible to run for office unless they fall under certain disqualification clauses (Constitution, Article 93, Paragraph 2; Local Autonomy Law, Article 19, Paragraph 2). The term of office is four years, and governors cannot serve as members of the National Diet or local assemblies. Even before the end of their term, governors can be forced to resign due to a vote of no confidence by the assembly, and if they do not adequately represent the will of the people as the head of a local government, they can lose their position if there is a majority vote in a referendum based on a request from the residents to dismiss them.

Prefectural governors, as the executive organ of their prefectures, manage and execute their prefecture's affairs (for example, adjusting and executing budgets, levying and collecting local taxes, supervising accounting, and managing property), and can also make corrective recommendations to municipalities regarding their autonomous affairs, give corrective instructions to municipalities regarding statutory entrusted affairs, or take steps to enforce the affairs of their respective prefectures.

(2) The head of a city, town or village is the mayor, who is assisted by deputy mayors, officials and specialist committee members. The mayor is the highest executive body that represents the city, town or village to the outside world. Under the local government system under the old constitution, mayors were elected by the city, town or village council, but under the current constitution, they are directly elected by the residents of the city, town or village (Article 93, Clause 2). The qualifications for being elected as a mayor are the same as those for a prefectural governor, except that the mayor must be at least 25 years of age, and the same rules apply regarding term of office, prohibition on holding multiple positions, and loss of position.

The mayor of a city, town or village is responsible for the autonomous affairs of the city, town or village and supervises its staff. He or she also handles affairs that are originally the responsibility of the national government but that are handled by law (legally entrusted affairs).

(3) In addition, in areas where it is desirable to maintain political neutrality, the following committees and commissioners are established as independent executive bodies not subordinate to the chief executive officer: Prefectural governments have boards of education, election management committees, personnel committees, public safety commissions, prefectural labor commissions, expropriation committees, marine area fisheries adjustment committees, inland fisheries management committees, and audit commissioners, while municipal governments have boards of education, election management committees, personnel committees or fairness committees, agricultural committees, fixed asset assessment review committees, and audit commissioners.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Decision-making body

Prefectural assemblies and city, town and village assemblies are established as the deliberative bodies of local public entities. These are called local assemblies or municipal assemblies, in contrast to the National Diet, which is the national legislative body. Local assemblies under the Meiji Constitution were modelled on the German system and had a strong bureaucratic character, with prefectural assemblies in particular having weak powers. Under the Constitution of Japan, the organisation of local assemblies was democratised and their powers broadened. The organisation and powers of local assemblies are detailed in Chapter 6 of the Local Autonomy Act (Articles 89-138).

(1) Organization The number of assembly members is determined by ordinance for each local government. The law only sets upper limits according to the size of the organization. The upper limit for the number of assembly members is set at 40 to 120 for prefectures and 12 to 96 for city, town and village assemblies. Assembly members are directly elected by the residents of each local government for a four-year term. Anyone who is 25 years of age or older and has the right to vote for local assembly members is eligible to be elected as an assembly member. An assembly member will lose his/her position during his/her term if the mayor dissolves the assembly, if the residents request the assembly to be dissolved and receive a majority in a referendum, or if the residents recall him/her.

(2)Powers Local assemblies have broad powers, including the enactment, amendment and repeal of ordinances, determination of revenue and expenditure budgets, imposition of local taxes and other public charges, acquisition and disposal of property, and conclusion of contracts. They can also inspect the management of affairs and the execution status of executive agencies, request audits from audit commissioners, and compulsorily investigate affairs of local public entities (known as the Article 100 power of investigation). They also give consent to personnel affairs of vice governors, deputy mayors, and committee members (power of consent to personnel affairs).

(3) Management Local assemblies are divided into regular sessions convened by the head of the local government and held up to four times a year, and extraordinary sessions convened when necessary for specific matters. In addition, the head must convene an extraordinary assembly if the chairman requests it following a discussion in the assembly management committee, or if a request is made by more than one-quarter of the assembly members. Assembly activities are carried out through plenary sessions, as well as standing committees and special committees divided by department. In order for a local assembly to hold a meeting, more than half of the assembly members must be present, and general agenda decisions require the approval of a majority of the assembly members present. In principle, local assembly proceedings are open to the public. Local assemblies elect one speaker and one vice speaker. An assembly has an assembly secretariat that handles the general affairs of the assembly.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Problems with the local government system

Since the end of the Second World War, the local government system, which has local governments at its core, has undergone rapid changes in response to the rapid changes in social conditions, but the current system cannot be said to be adequately adapted to these changes, and the reality is that it is still plagued by a number of problems that require urgent resolution. These problems can be summarized as follows:

First, although decentralization has been implemented and the powers of local governments have been expanded, we have yet to see any results. The improvement of local legislative functions through the expansion of ordinance-making powers has only just begun, and interest among local government officials in administrative work in the age of decentralization is low. Furthermore, decentralization reform itself is "incomplete," with the issue of tax revenue sources being put off.

Secondly, the concentration of population and industry in large cities and their surrounding areas has led to a succession of problems that urgently need to be solved, such as traffic and living environments, and especially pollution problems, which are impeding human existence. Solving the complex and diverse problems of large cities is a modern-day challenge that cannot be solved overnight.

Thirdly, with the recent rapid changes in social conditions and the transformation of resident consciousness, resident demands are shifting to qualitative ones, and residents themselves are becoming the providers of public services, with an increase in the activities of workers collectives, volunteers, community enterprises, and other non-profit organizations (NPOs). How local governments will respond to the creation of this "new public" is being questioned.

Fourth, the Metropolitan Area Development Law (Law No. 83, 1956), Kinki Area Development Law (Law No. 129, 1963), and Chubu Area Development and Development Law (Law No. 102, 1966), based on the concept of wide-area regions, have been enacted and implemented, but these measures have resulted in the concentration of population and industry. In areas where primary industries are the core, the simultaneous progress of population decline and aging is threatening the very existence of local governments. The government has established a policy of dealing with this situation through municipal mergers, and is taking special measures, including financial preferential treatment, to consolidate the total number of local governments to around 1,000. However, much will be lost as the scale increases, and both merged and unmerged municipalities are required to be creative in their management. The solution of these problems is a major issue that affects the fate of local government in Japan, and it can be said that all citizens are called upon to take an active interest in this issue.

[Masaaki Ikeda and Yukinori Tsujiyama]

Tawara Shizuo, Law Studies Collection 8: Local Autonomy Law (1975, Yuhikaku) ▽ Okawa Ichiro, Shiono Hiroshi, Sonobe Itsuo eds., Modern Administrative Law Series 8: Local Autonomy (1984, Yuhikaku) ▽ Omori Yataka, Sato Seizaburo eds., Local Government in Japan (1986, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ Nishio Masaru, Omori Yataka eds., Essentials of Autonomous Administration (1986, Daiichi Hoki Publishing) ▽ Oishi Kaichiro, Local Autonomy in Modern Japan (1990, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ Yamashita Shigeru et al., Comparative Local Autonomy, Revised and Expanded Edition (1992, Daiichi Hoki Publishing) ▽ Abe Hitoshi, Shindo Muneyuki, An Overview of Japanese Local Autonomy (1997, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ Japan Association for Local Autonomy Studies eds., Advanced Theories of Local Autonomy (1998, Keiso Shobo) ▽ "Standards for Administrative Evaluation: Measuring Local Government Activities" by Herbert A. Simon and Clarence E. Ridley, translated by Honda Hiroshi (1999, Hokuju Publishing)" ▽ "Local Government Reform Begins, by Murao Nobuhisa and Moriwaki Toshio (1999, Kwansei Gakuin University Press)" ▽ "Can Regional Economies be Revitalized? Considering the Nature of Local Governments," by Nakayama Toru (1999, Shin Nihon Shuppansha)" ▽ "Local Finance Theory," edited by Katagiri Akiyasu, Kanemura Takafumi, and Hoshino Izumi (2000, Tax Accountant Association)" ▽ "Detailed Explanation of the New Local Government System," by Matsumoto Hideaki (2000, Gyosei)" ▽ "Laws and Systems of Local Government, by Harada Takahiko, 3rd revised edition (2001, Gakuyo Shobo)" ▽ "Local Government in Modern Japan, edited by Imamura Tonanao (2006, Keibundo)" ▽ "New Local Autonomy Law" by Jin Kaneko (Iwanami Shinsho) " "Local Autonomy in Japan" by Kiyoaki Tsuji (Iwanami Shinsho)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一定地域を存立の基礎とし、その区域に住む住民を構成員として、そこにおける事務を住民の自治によって処理する権能を認められた団体をいう。国とは別の法人格を有する。その種類、権限などについては、その国の政治体制によって異なっている。

　日本では、かつては地方団体とよばれていたが、日本国憲法第8章で「地方公共団体」の語が用いられて以来、法律上こうよばれるようになった。地方自治体、地方自治団体、または単に自治体とよばれることもある。

　明治憲法下では、自治団体としての実質は少なく、官僚的中央集権制の下部団体とされてきた。第二次世界大戦後、地方公共団体を団体自治と住民自治の原則に従って組織・運営することが、民主主義の実現にとってぜひ必要であるという趣旨のもとに、日本国憲法は地方自治の章をとくに設け、地方公共団体の自治を保障した。これに基づいて1947年（昭和22）、地方公共団体の種類・組織・運営に関する事項や、国と地方公共団体との基本的関係を定めた地方自治法が施行された。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

沿革

日本の地方制度の変遷は次の7時期に分けられる。

　第一期は、大区小区の時期で、1871年（明治4）の廃藩置県により府県を単位として統一され、在来の郡・町村にかわって、府県の下に行政区画としての区が設けられた。この区はのちに大区・小区に分けられ、府県も数度にわたって廃置分合されたが、いちおう形式的な体制が整えられた。

　第二期は、大区小区の制度が形式的で慣習を無視したものであったから、1878年の郡区町村編制法、府県会規則、地方税規則の3新法によって修正が加えられた時期である（区町村会法は1881年に制定）。これらにより、府県の下に旧来の郡・町村を復活、3府（東京・京都・大阪）、5港（横浜・神戸・長崎・新潟・函館(はこだて)）、その他人口の集中する地を区とし、区・町村を自治団体とした。公選議員による府県会が設置され、区町村にも区町村会を開くことが認められ、近代的地方制度の基礎が定められた。

　第三期は、1888年に市制と町村制、1890年に府県制、郡制が公布された時期である。郡制は1923年（大正12）に廃止され、府県制、市制、町村制もしばしば改正されたが、第二次世界大戦終了後、地方自治法が施行されるまで続けられた。この地方制度の目的は、中央集権によって国家の基礎を強化することにあり、国の監督の下に自治機能は拘束され、地方団体の自主制と地方住民の自治性とを著しく欠いた官治行政であった。

　第四期は、日本国憲法のもとで地方分権の強化と地方行政の民主化が推進された時期である。第二次世界大戦後の1947年に地方自治法が実施されて、地方分権制による団体自治と住民自治が強化された。さらに、地方自治法について、1947年、1948年、1950年と重要な改正が行われて、地方自治の拡充強化が図られた。占領下における地方自治の理想的形態が追求された時期であった。

　第五期は、1952年、対日講和条約の発効を契機として、地方自治制が再編成期に入る時期である。1952年、1956年の地方自治法の大改正、1954年の警察法の大改正による警察制度の改革、1956年の教育委員会制度の改革などに、中央集権化の方針が示されている。1953年の町村合併促進法により、以後5年間にわたって市町村の再編成が進められた。さらに、1955年末には地方財政再建促進特別措置法が制定され、国の援助を「てこ」として財政統制が強められ、この面からも中央集権化が進められた。1960年ごろに始まる高度成長期には、新中央集権とよばれる動向が顕著になった。すなわち、行政の計画化・技術化の要請に応じて、地域開発の推進、水資源の開発・配分、産業基盤の整備、住宅建設などの行政分野において、国の主導性が発揮され、国の地方出先機関の新設・強化、国の公社・公団の地方進出が提案され、実施された。

　1970年代に入って第六期が始まる。すなわち、高度成長のゆがみが顕在化するにつれ、人間性の回復、環境保護、歴史的文化の尊重といった価値観を背景として、市民運動、住民運動が起こり、それに支えられた住民参加が主張され、「地方の時代」が唱えられた。地方公共団体も、国に先駆けて住民要求にこたえるために積極的に新しい行政分野の開拓と行政処理方式の開発に努力し、身近な政府としての実質を備えるようになってきた。こうした流れのなかで、1975年には東京特別区の区長公選が実施された。他方、前期から進められた中央集権化は、1980年代に入ると、国の財政改革の過程で、高率補助金の補助率削減や地方行政改革の推進という形で進められ、1986年には、首相の執政権強化を意図した職務執行命令訴訟制度の簡略化が提案された（1991年成立）。

　第七期は1990年代に始まる地方分権の時代である。1994年（平成6）には広域連合および中核市の制度を創設する地方自治法改正が行われ、1995年には地方分権推進法に基づいて地方分権推進委員会が設置された。2000年4月からは同委員会の勧告に基づく地方分権一括法が施行され、明治以来の特徴の一つであった中央集権的行政システムが分権的行政システムに転換された。このときの地方自治法改正で新たに特例市の制度が設けられた。2007年には地方分権改革推進委員会が設置され、第二期地方分権改革に着手している。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

地方公共団体の種類

地方公共団体には、普通地方公共団体と特別地方公共団体とがある。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

普通地方公共団体

都道府県および市町村をいう。都道府県は、国と市町村の中間に位する広域の地方公共団体であり、市町村とは対等の完全自治体である。ただ市町村を包括する広域地方公共団体として、広域事務、連絡調整事務、補完事務などを処理し、市町村と異なる機能を期待されている点で、若干の差異が認められるにすぎない。明治憲法下のように市町村に対し上位・監督の関係にたたない。現在1都1道2府43県ある。都・道・府・県の名称の差異は沿革的なものにすぎず、府（大阪府・京都府）と県の性格についても法律上の差異はない。ただ、北海道については沿革上、その処理する事務につき若干の特例があり、また、2007年施行の道州制特区推進法により特定広域団体として指定されている。都は、市町村の区域においては府県と差異はないが、特別区（23区）のある地域において、都は市の性格をも有し、そのため都行政の総合的一元化の観点から特別区の権能は制限されている。

　市町村は日本におけるもっとも基礎的な地方公共団体で、都道府県と相互に共同して地方自治行政にあたるのを原則とし、事務を処理するにあたっては互いに競合しないような配慮のもとに、広域的な処理を必要とする事務は、もっぱら都道府県の事務とされ、市町村の事務から除かれている。市・町・村には性格上の相違はなく、市は人口5万以上で一定の都市的要件を備えた地域（あるいは市町村合併特例適用の人口3万以上の地域）、町はその都道府県条例で定められた要件を備えた地域である。なお、村については法律上特別の要件は定められていない。市のうち、政令で指定する人口50万以上の市を政令指定都市（横浜、名古屋、京都、大阪、神戸、北九州、札幌、川崎、福岡、広島、仙台、千葉、さいたま、静岡、堺、新潟、浜松、岡山：指定年順）といい、本来、都道府県が処理するたてまえとなっている事務を大幅にこれにゆだねるとともに、その監督や区（行政区）の設置について特例を定めている。中核市は人口30万以上の都市に指定される。その権限はほぼ政令指定都市なみであるが、行政区を置く必要はない。2009年4月現在、41市ある。特例市は人口20万以上で指定を受けることができる。騒音、悪臭、振動などの環境基準の設定や開発行為の許可権などの特例がある。2009年4月現在41市が該当する。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

特別地方公共団体

特別区、地方公共団体の組合、財産区、および地方開発事業団をいう。

　特別区は東京の23区をいい、沿革上、都の内部団体として特別地方公共団体に分類されるが、全体として一つの大都市を形成している実態にかんがみて、原則として市に関する規定が適用される。なお、区長は当初は公選制、1964年（昭和39）から区議会が選任することになっていたが、1974年からふたたび公選制に改められた。なお、2000年の地方自治法の改正で、特別地方公共団体であるが「基礎的な地方公共団体」とされた。

　地方公共団体の組合は、二つ以上の地方公共団体がその事務を共同で処理するために設けられたものであり、2008年7月時点で、一部事務組合（1664）、広域連合（111）、全部事務組合（0）、役場事務組合（0）となっている。

　財産区は、市町村、特別区の一部で財産を有し、もしくは営造物を設けているもので、用水路、公民館、山林などがその例である。

　地方開発事業団は、いくつかの地方公共団体が総合的な計画に基づく事業の実施を委託するために設けられたものである。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

住民

地方公共団体を構成する人的要素をいう。市町村（特別区を含む）の区域内に住所を有する者は、その市町村およびこれを包括する都道府県の住民となる。人種、国籍のいかんを問わない。住民は、地方公共団体から等しくサービスを受ける権利をもち、その負担を分任する義務を負う。また、日本国民である住民は、選挙権、条例の制定・改廃請求権、事務の監査請求権、議会の解散請求権、解職請求権（リコールの権利）などをもっている。

　なお近年、国会には外国人の地方参政権を認める法案が何度も提出されているが、2009年4月時点で、成立に至っていない。この間、地方公共団体では外国人の公務員就任制限の見直しや、外国人市民代表者会議の設置が行われている。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

地方公共団体の権能

日本国憲法は、地方公共団体に、その財産を管理し、事務を処理し、行政を執行する権能、および法律の範囲内で条例を制定する権能を与えている（94条）。

　地方公共団体の権能は、自治権の内容をなすもので、地方議会による条例制定権、長による規則の制定・改廃の権能（自治立法権）、自主的に組織を定める権能（自治組織権）、地方税などの賦課徴収などの財政上の権能（自治財政権）などからなる。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

地方公共団体の事務

地方公共団体は、その存立のため、または住民の福祉を増進するために必要とされる事務（自治事務）のほか、本来国の役割に係るものであるが、国においてその適正な処理をとくに確保する必要がある事務として法令で定めるもの（法定受託事務）を処理する。

　自治事務は固有事務ともよばれ、団体の組織・財務・自治立法に関する事務と、学校・保育所・病院・市場・授産所・と畜場などの設置管理、埋・火葬、ゴミ・し尿処理などの各種事業のほか、バス・地下鉄、ガス事業などの公営企業を含む。法定受託事務は、国道や一級河川の管理、生活保護など、国においてその確実な執行がとくに必要とされるものであり、この事務について各大臣は、よるべき基準（処理基準）を定めることができるとされている。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

地方公共団体の機関――二元代表制

日本国憲法は、地方公共団体に議事機関として議会を置くこと、議会の議員および長はそれぞれ直接公選すべきことを定めた（93条。二元代表制）。地方自治法は、この規定を受けて首長制を採用し、議決機関としての議会と執行機関としての長とを、ともに住民の意思に基づく機関として対立させ、相互の牽制(けんせい)によって正しい自治を実現するよう配慮している。

執行機関

(1)都道府県の長は知事で、その補助機関として副知事および職員、専門委員が置かれている。明治憲法下においては東京都長官、北海道長官、府県知事は、天皇の勅任による国の官吏であった。

　都道府県知事は現行憲法のもとでは住民の直接公選により選ばれ、日本国民で年齢満30年以上の者は一定の欠格条項に該当しない限り被選挙権を有する（憲法93条2項、地方自治法19条2項）。任期は4年で、国会議員や地方議会議員などと兼ねることはできない。任期満了以前でも、議会の不信任によって退職させられ、地方公共団体の長として十分に民意を代表していないときは、住民の解職請求に基づく住民投票において過半数の同意があれば、その地位を失うことがある。

　都道府県知事は当該都道府県の執行機関として、その事務を管理執行する（たとえば、予算の調整執行、地方税の賦課徴収、会計の監督、財産の管理など）ほか、市町村が処理する自治事務に対して是正勧告を行ったり、市町村の処理する法定受託事務に対して是正の指示を行い、あるいは代執行の手続きをとることができる。

(2)市町村の長は市町村長で、その補助機関として、副市町村長および職員、専門委員が置かれている。市町村長は市町村を外部に対して代表する最高の執行機関である。旧憲法時代の地方制度のもとでは、市町村長は市町村会が選挙するたてまえをとっていたが、現行憲法のもとでは市町村の住民が直接公選する（93条2項）。市町村長に選ばれる資格は、年齢満25年以上の者であるほかは都道府県知事と同じで、そのほか、任期、兼職禁止、地位の喪失についても同様である。

　市町村長は市町村の自治事務を担任し、その職員を指揮監督するのを本来の職務とする。また、本来国が果たすべき役割に係るものであるが、法令によって処理することとされた事務（法定受託事務）をも処理する。

(3)なお、政治的に中立を保って処理することが望まれる分野には、長に従属しない独立の執行機関として次のような委員会および委員が置かれる。都道府県には、教育委員会、選挙管理委員会、人事委員会、公安委員会、都道府県労働委員会、収用委員会、海区漁業調整委員会、内水面漁場管理委員会、監査委員があり、市町村には、教育委員会、選挙管理委員会、人事委員会または公平委員会、農業委員会、固定資産評価審査委員会、監査委員がある。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

議決機関

地方公共団体の議事機関として、都道府県議会および市町村議会が置かれる。これらは国の立法機関である国会に対し、地方議会または自治体議会とよばれる。明治憲法下の地方議会はドイツの制度に範をとったもので、官治的性格が濃厚であり、府県会はとくに権限が弱かった。日本国憲法のもとでは、地方議会の組織が民主化され、権限も広範となった。地方議会の組織、権限については、地方自治法第6章（89条～138条）に細かく定められている。

(1)組織　議員の定数は地方公共団体ごとに条例で定める。法律は団体規模別にその上限を定めるのみである。上限議員数は、都道府県の場合には40人から120人まで、市町村議会の場合には12人から96人までと定められている。議員は、各地方公共団体の住民により、4年を任期として直接に選挙される。地方議会の議員の選挙権をもつ年齢満25年以上の者は、議員に選挙される資格をもつ。議員は、任期中でも、長が議会を解散した場合、住民から議会の解散請求がなされて住民投票で多数を得た場合、および住民の手でリコールされた場合には、その地位を失う。

(2)権限　地方議会の権限は広範にわたり、条例を制定・改廃し、歳出歳入予算を定め、地方税などの公租公課を課し、財産を取得・処分し、契約を結ぶなどの行為をするほか、事務の管理や執行機関の執行状況について検査し、監査委員に監査を求め、地方公共団体の事務について強制的な調査（100条調査権という）もすることができる。また、副知事、副市町村長および委員会の委員の人事に同意を与える（人事同意権）。

(3)運営　地方議会は、地方公共団体の長が招集し、年4回以内開かれる定例会と、必要がある場合に特定の事項に限って招集される臨時会の区別がある。そのほか、議会運営委員会の議を経て議長から議会招集の請求がある場合や、議員定数の4分の1以上の者から請求がある場合には、長は臨時議会を招集しなければならない。議会の活動は、本会議のほか、部門別に分けられた常任委員会や特別委員会を通じて行われる。地方議会が会議を開くためには、議員定数の半数以上の出席が必要で、一般の議事決定には出席議員の過半数の賛成を必要とする。地方議会の議事は原則として公開される。地方議会は議長1人と副議長1人を選挙する。議会には、議会の庶務をつかさどる議会事務局が置かれる。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

地方制度の問題点

第二次世界大戦後、地方公共団体を核とする地方制度は、社会情勢の急激な変化に伴い、めまぐるしい変遷を重ねてきてはいるが、現行制度はこれに十分対応しているとはいえず、なお早急に解決を迫られている幾多の問題を抱え込んでいるというのが実状である。それらの問題点を要約すれば次の諸点に求められる。

　第一に、地方分権が実施に移され、地方公共団体の権能が拡充されたにもかかわらず、その成果がいまだみられない。条例制定権の拡大に伴う自治立法機能の向上は、ようやくその緒についたばかりであるし、職員の間の分権時代の行政執務に対する関心も低い。また地方分権改革自体も、税財源問題を先送りするなど「未完」である。

　第二に、大都市およびその周辺への人口と産業の集中により、そこには交通・生活環境、とくに公害問題など緊急に解決を必要とする問題が続出し、人間らしい生存を阻害しているという点である。現実の複雑多様な大都市問題の解決は一朝一夕に成果をあげることの困難な現代の難問である。

　第三に、最近の社会情勢の急激な変化と住民意識の変容に伴い、住民の要望が質的なものへと転換するとともに、住民自らが公共サービスの担い手になる、ワーカーズ・コレクティブworkers collectiveやボランティア、コミュニティ・エンタープライズcommunity enterprise（社会事業）などNPO（民間非営利組織）の活動が増大している。このような「新しい公共」の創造に地方公共団体がいかに対応していくかが問われている。

　第四に、これまで広域圏構想に基づく首都圏整備法（昭和31年法律第83号）、近畿圏整備法（昭和38年法律第129号）、中部圏開発整備法（昭和41年法律第102号）などが制定・施行されたが、これらの施策は、かえって人口と産業の集中をもたらす結果となっている。第一次産業を核とする地域では、人口の減少と高齢化の同時進行で、地方公共団体としての存立さえもおびやかされている。政府は、こうした事態に市町村合併で対処する方針をたて、財政的優遇を含む特例措置を講じて地方公共団体の総数を1000くらいにまで統合することとしている。しかし、規模の拡大によって失われるものも多く、合併、未合併いずれの市町村も、その運営に創意工夫が求められている。これらの諸問題の解決は、日本の地方自治の命運にかかわる重大問題であり、これについて積極的な関心をもつことが、すべての国民に要請されているといえる。

［池田政章・辻山幸宣］

『俵静夫著『法律学全集8　地方自治法』（1975・有斐閣）』▽『雄川一郎・塩野宏・園部逸夫編『現代行政法大系8　地方自治』（1984・有斐閣）』▽『大森弥・佐藤誠三郎編『日本の地方政府』（1986・東京大学出版会）』▽『西尾勝・大森弥編著『自治行政要論』（1986・第一法規出版）』▽『大石嘉一郎著『近代日本の地方自治』（1990・東京大学出版会）』▽『山下茂他著『比較地方自治』増補改訂版（1992・第一法規出版）』▽『阿部斉・新藤宗幸著『概説日本の地方自治』（1997・東京大学出版会）』▽『日本地方自治研究学会編『地方自治の先端理論』（1998・勁草書房）』▽『ハーバート・A・サイモン、クラレンス・E・リドレー著、本田弘訳『行政評価の基準――自治体活動の測定』（1999・北樹出版）』▽『村尾信尚・森脇俊雄著『動きだした地方自治体改革』（1999・関西学院大学出版会）』▽『中山徹著『地域経済は再生できるか――自治体のあり方を考える』（1999・新日本出版社）』▽『片桐昭泰・兼村高文・星野泉編著『地方財政論』（2000・税務経理協会）』▽『松本英昭著『新地方自治制度詳解』（2000・ぎょうせい）』▽『原田尚彦著『地方自治の法としくみ』全訂3版（2001・学陽書房）』▽『今村都南雄編著『現代日本の地方自治』（2006・敬文堂）』▽『兼子仁著『新地方自治法』（岩波新書）』▽『辻清明著『日本の地方自治』（岩波新書）』