This refers to the price of land, that is, the current price or buying and selling price of land. Land has a price because, with the development of the commodity economy, it has become privately owned, commodified, and the subject of buying and selling. When land is created, such as in the case of reclaimed land, the market price is calculated based on the production costs. However, land has characteristics that other commodities do not have: it is non-reproducible, non-movable, finite, and cannot be replaced because of the unique conditions of each piece of land, does not require depreciation, and does not disappear, so it can generate profits forever. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Capital return theoryThus, land prices can be considered as the return on capital obtained by dividing the income from land (rent) by the interest rate. This means that land is considered to be a kind of capital (fictitious capital) that generates interest in the form of rent. However, when land prices continue to rise for many years, as was the case in Japan up until the 1980s, speculative profits are expected from price increases, and land prices are determined taking this into account. For example, The difficulty with this capitalization theory is that land, an asset with an infinite useful life, must be discounted, the discount rate ρ cannot be obtained in reality, and it is circular reasoning in that a forecast of future increases in land prices is necessary to determine the current land price. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] All supply and demandWhen comparing the land area owned by real estate companies with the area of demand estimated from the amount of funds available to individuals looking to buy it, the former is far larger. In other words, supply exceeds demand. Therefore, the theory goes that when real estate companies can no longer continue the cycle of selling land (recovering funds) → buying land (investing funds) during a recession, land will be dumped, meaning land prices will fall. This total supply and demand theory has problems in that it ignores loans secured by land by financial institutions, and furthermore, it merely contrasts general land supply and general demand. These are amended into the marginal supply and demand theory, which follows. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Marginal supply and demand theoryLooking at the prices of residential land, which is the focus of attention of the general public, there is a strong tendency for them to be inversely proportional to the convenience of transportation to the center of a large city where the workplace is located or the length of the commute time. In other words, the prices are high in the economically superior central areas of the city, and lower as you move towards the periphery. This theory tries to explain this phenomenon. This theory states that land prices are first determined for newly sold vacant land (marginal land), and then spread to the land prices of existing land and reach the city center. In other words, when vacant land is supplied deep in Hachioji, Tokyo, since there is essentially no production price for land in this marginal land, the maximum price that a buyer can offer will ultimately determine the land price. This will then raise the valuation of land prices in areas closer to Hachioji Station, raise the valuation of land prices in front of Hachioji Station, and raise the valuation of land prices in front of Kichijoji Station, and reach the center of Tokyo. This can be said to be an application of D. Ricardo's differential rent theory to land prices. This theory makes it difficult to explain how the maximum price a buyer is willing to offer is determined, but it may depend on the buyer's income, assets, and available borrowing funds. What is interesting about this theory is that, for example, if the government expands the lending limit of the Government Housing Loan Corporation (which became the Japan Housing Finance Agency in April 2007), buyers will have more borrowing funds, which will temporarily stimulate land purchases, but in the long run this will induce an increase in land prices. This "cat and mouse game" is certainly observed, and it suggests the ineffectiveness of Japan's land policy. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Land price evaluation methodThe methods of valuing land prices that are actually used are the income capitalization method and the actual transaction method. The former is the capitalization method mentioned above, and is used for agricultural land. The latter is an evaluation based on the transaction prices of the land in the vicinity, and is mainly used for non-agricultural land. One of these methods is the road evaluation method. This method determines a standard for the road that the land faces, and evaluates other land based on this standard, taking into account its location and shape, and is used for evaluations related to fixed asset taxes and urban planning projects. In Japan, the Land Price Public Notification System was established in 1969 (Showa 44), and standard prices are determined and publicly announced by public institutions (currently the Land and Water Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism), but the evaluation method has changed from the actual transaction method to the income capitalization method, which remains the same to this day. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Land prices soarLand prices in Japan have been rising steadily since the period of high economic growth, but during the slow economic growth caused by the oil shocks of the 1970s, they soared twice, by 79% in the four years from 1978 (Showa 53) to 1981, and by 2.13 times in the four years from 1986 to 1989 (Heisei 1) (both in the average publicly announced prices for residential land). The former was driven by the expansion of economic activity, i.e. the development of new residential land (residential land, commercial office land, factory land) (100,000 hectares), but the latter was clearly induced by land speculation in central Tokyo, as new developments remained at 80,000 hectares during these four years. In other words, the trigger was the announcement in 1985 by the National Land Agency (now the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism) of a prediction that there would be huge demand for offices around Tokyo's waterfront, which led to monetary easing as a measure to combat the high yen and recession, which led to huge amounts of money flowing into the real estate industry from financial institutions, including non-banks, which were used for land speculation, causing land prices in the city center to skyrocket. Then, when people sold their residential land in the city center and sought alternative housing in the suburbs, land prices rose again, and the rise in land prices spread from the city center to the suburbs. In this case, a special tax exemption that only taxed the difference between the selling price and the purchase price worked effectively. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Government land price measuresIn response to this sudden rise, the government, which was completely incompetent in land policy or land price measures, came up with the following measures. The first was the total amount of lending restrictions to the real estate industry. This was a guideline by the Bank of Japan to limit financial institutions' lending to the real estate industry to the same amount as the same period of the previous year, and was quite effective in suppressing land prices. However, so-called non-banks were not subject to this restriction, so lending flowed from financial institutions to non-banks to the real estate industry, and with the collapse of the bubble, much of this became non-performing loans, causing the "Jusen problem." The second was a tax reform, which abolished the special exception that only taxed the difference between the selling price and the purchase price, and revised the system that allowed interest to be deducted as an expense for loan repayments on condominiums, etc. purchased in the hope of a price rise, so that interest on the land portion was not deductible. The third was the implementation of a land value tax. This tax rate is based on the roadside land value, and is 0.2% (1992, 0.3% from the following year) on the portion of land owned by individuals and corporations with capital of less than 100 million yen worth of land worth over 1.5 billion yen, and on the portion of land owned by corporations with capital of over 100 million yen worth of land worth over 1 billion yen. The direct effect of the land value tax in lowering land prices (current market value) was extremely small, but it had a large effect on the mood, and it can be said that the intended purpose was achieved. In 1997 the tax rate was raised to 0.15%, and it was suspended for the time being due to the tax reform in 1998, but it will likely be abolished soon. The fourth is the land price monitoring zone system. This is a system in which when land transactions take place within urbanized areas based on city planning, the purchase price is notified to the local government in advance, and if the price is high, a recommendation is made to lower it. Although it has been criticized for making land transactions less active, it has been quite effective in suppressing land prices. Furthermore, the Land and House Lease Law was enacted in 1992, which merged the Land and House Lease Law, with the aim of facilitating and increasing the supply of housing land. However, what had an even greater effect than these various measures was the collapse of the bubble and the compound recession, which also triggered a real estate recession, with the national urban land price index peaking in September 1991 and falling 20.4% by September 1996, and continuing to fall since then. [Tetsuya Hitosugi] Yukio Noguchi, "The Mechanism of Land Price Rise and Land Price Measures" (Quarterly Contemporary Economy, No. 36, 1979, Nihon Keizai Shimbun) ▽ Kayano Shinzawa and Ken Kayama, "Land Prices and Land Policy" (1970, Iwanami Shoten) [Reference items] | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
土地の価格、すなわち土地の時価ないし売買価格をいう。土地に価格がつけられるのは、商品経済の発展につれて、私有され商品化されて売買の対象となったからである。埋立地のように土地が創出される場合には、その生産費用をもとに市場価格が算出されよう。しかし、土地は本来、再生産不能、移動不能、有限、各土地固有の条件があるから代替不能、減価償却不要、そして消滅せず永久に収益をあげられるという他の商品にはない特性をもっている。 [一杉哲也] 資本還元説かくて地価は、まず土地からの収益(地代)を利子率で除して資本還元したものと考えることができる。これは土地が一種の資本(擬制資本)となり、そこから地代という利子を生むとみなすことを意味する。 しかし、1980年代までの日本の場合のように長年にわたって地価が上昇を続けると、値上りによる投機的利益が期待され、土地価格はこれを含めて決定されることになる。たとえば、 この資本還元説の難点は、土地という無限の耐用年数をもつ資産を割り引くべき、ρという割引率が現実には得られないこと、そして現在地価を得るのに将来地価の値上り予想が必要であるという循環論法であることである。 [一杉哲也] 全部需給説不動産会社が保有している宅地面積と、それを買おうとする個人の動員可能な資金量から推定される需要面積とを比べると、前者がはるかに大きい。つまり供給が需要を上回っている。したがって不動産会社が、土地売却(資金回収)→土地購入(資金投下)の回転を、不況時に続けられなくなると、土地投げ売り、すなわち地価下落がおこるという説である。この全部需給説は、金融機関による土地を担保とした融資を軽視したこと、さらに土地の供給一般・需要一般を対比させたにすぎないことに難点がある。これらを修正したのが、次の限界需給説である。 [一杉哲也] 限界需給説いま一般人の関心の焦点である宅地価格をみると、それは、勤務先の所在地である大都市中心部への交通の便ないし通勤時間の長さに反比例する傾向が強い。すなわち経済的位置の優れた都心部において高く、周辺部にいくにつれて低くなっている。この現象を説明しようとするのがこの説である。これは、地価が、新たに売り出された更地(さらち)(限界地)においてまず決定され、それが既成地の地価に波及して都心に及ぶとするものである。すなわち東京都八王子の奥で更地が供給されると、この限界地においては、土地の生産価格というものは本来ありえないのだから、結局買い手の出しうる最大限の価格が地価を決めることになる。するとそれが八王子駅により近い地域の地価の評価をあげ、八王子駅前の地価の評価をあげ、吉祥寺(きちじょうじ)駅前の評価をあげて東京都心に及んでいくとみるのである。これはD・リカードの差額地代説を地価に応用したものといえよう。この説では、買い手の出しうる最大限の価格がどう決定されるかの説明が困難であるが、それは買い手の所得、財産、可能な借入資金などによって左右されるものといえよう。 この説で興味深いのは、たとえば、政府が住宅金融公庫(2007年4月より住宅金融支援機構となった)の貸出枠を拡大すると、買い手の借入資金が大となって一時的には土地購入を刺激するが、やがてそれが地価上昇を誘発してしまうとする点である。この「いたちごっこ」は確実にみられるものであり、日本の土地政策の不妊性を暗示している。 [一杉哲也] 地価の評価方法実際に行われている地価の評価方法には、収益還元方式と取引実勢方式とがある。前者は前述の資本還元方式で、農地について用いられている。後者は、当該土地近傍の売買取引価格を参考にして評価するものであり、農地以外について主として用いられている。その一種に路線評価(路線価)法がある。これは、土地の面している道路について標準を定め、他の土地はこれを基準にして位置・形状などを考慮して評価する方法であり、固定資産税や都市計画事業に伴う評価に用いられている。なお、日本では1969年(昭和44)に制定された地価公示制度により、標準的な価格を公的機関(現在は国土交通省土地・水資源局)が判定公示することになったが、その評価方法は取引実勢方式から収益還元方式重点へとかわって現在に至っている。 [一杉哲也] 地価急騰高度成長期以降、一貫して上昇してきた日本の地価は、1970年代のオイル・ショックの低成長下で、1978年(昭和53)から1981年までの4年間に79%、1986年から1989年(平成1)までの4年間に2.13倍と2回にわたって急騰した(いずれも全国平均宅地公示価格)。前者は、経済活動の外延的拡大すなわち新しい宅地(住宅地、商業オフィス用地、工場用地)の開発(10万ヘクタール)が地価上昇を強めたが、後者は、この4年間に新開発が8万ヘクタールにとどまっていることから、地価の上昇はあきらかに東京の都心の地上げが誘発したものである。すなわち、1985年国土庁(現国土交通省)が東京ウォーターフロント周辺のオフィス需要が巨大であるとの予測を発表したのが引き金となり、円高不況対策としての金融緩和により、ノンバンク等を含めた金融機関から膨大な資金が不動産業に流れ、これが地上げに用いられて都心の地価を暴騰させた。そして都心の住宅地を売った人々が、郊外に住宅の代替地を求めるとそのためにまた地価が上がるという形で、地価上昇は都心から郊外へと波及していった。この場合、売却価額と購入価額の差額のみに課税されるという税制上の特例が有効に働いた。 [一杉哲也] 政府の地価対策この暴騰に、土地政策ないし地価対策にまったく無能であった政府も、次のような対策を打ち出した。第一は不動産業に対する融資の総量規制である。これは日本銀行が金融機関の対不動産業融資を、前年同期と同額に抑える指導であり、地価抑制にかなり効果をあげた。しかし、いわゆるノンバンクはこの規制の対象でなかったため、金融機関→ノンバンク→不動産業へと融資が流れ、バブルの崩壊とともにその多くが不良債権化して「住専問題」を発生させた。第二は税制上の改正であり、前記の売却価額と購入価額の差額のみに課税されるという特例の廃止、値上りを期待して購入した分譲マンションなどのローン返済額中、利子は経費として落とせる制度を改正して土地部分の利子は経費としない措置などが行われた。第三は地価税の施行である。これは路線価を課税標準として、個人と資本金1億円未満の法人の保有土地は15億円以上の部分、同1億円以上の法人は10億円以上の部分に0.2%(1992年度、次年度からは0.3%)の税率をかけるものである。地価税の直接的な地価(時価)引下げ効果はきわめてわずかであったが、ムード面での効果は大きく、所期の目的は達成されたとみてよい。1997年には税率0.15%となり、1998年度税制改正により当分の間停止されることになったが、やがて廃止されるであろう。第四は地価監視区域制である。これは都市計画上の市街化区域内で土地取引が行われる場合には、その売買価格をあらかじめ地方公共団体に届け出て、その価格が高いと低下を勧告するという制度であり、土地取引を不活発にしたという批判はあるものの、地価抑制にかなりの効果をあげた。 さらに宅地供給の円滑化、増加を目ざしたものが、1992年の借地法と借家法を統合した借地借家法の施行である。そしてこうした諸施策にもまして効果があったのが、バブルの崩壊ないし複合不況であった。それは同時に不動産不況にほかならず、全国市街地価格指数は1991年9月をピークに1996年9月まで20.4%下落し、以後も下がり続けている。 [一杉哲也] 『野口悠紀雄「地価上昇のメカニズムと地価対策」(『季刊・現代経済』第36号所収・1979・日本経済新聞社)』▽『新沢嘉芽統・華山謙著『地価と土地政策』(1970・岩波書店)』 [参照項目] | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
>>: Underground temperature survey
Its chemical formula is C 6 H 1 4 O 6 . It is also...
A genus of the Solanaceae family found in tropical...
Located in Miharada, Akagi Village, Seta District,...
… Representative works include “Eheya Noala”, “Bo...
The dyed cloth is stretched over a rough board an...
...This cycle applies not only to the past 200 mi...
Also called lymph. The fluid that flows through ly...
A village in Ayama District, northwest of Mie Pref...
〘Noun〙① A job title in the Kamakura and Muromachi ...
A clear expression of faith in a Christian church...
…Generally, the deeper the groundwater, the slowe...
An English morality play. It was written around 14...
…At this time, unlike other odd-toed ungulates, t...
...Also contains small amounts of Ca, Al, Ti, Mn,...
...It is also teratogenic, so its use in pregnant...