This term refers to C. R. Darwin's theory of evolution in biology, but also has a broader meaning of evolutionary thought in general in social thought. In "On the Origin of Species" published in 1859, Darwin scientifically proved, based on many sources, that living things have not remained unchanged since ancient times, but have evolved over a long period of time, and furthermore presented the theory that evolution is the result of the survival of the fittest through natural selection, and that humans are no exception as living things, having branched off from a common ancestor with modern-day monkeys. Darwin's theory of evolution, by asserting the rationality of natural science, transformed the world view and had a great impact on the intellectual world. In Darwin's time, 100 years had passed since the Industrial Revolution in England, and industrial capitalism was in the midst of its development, with free competition strengthening in the pursuit of overseas markets and colonies. Darwin himself came from a wealthy class and was raised in the free and cultured environment that the industrial capitalists of the time enjoyed. These social conditions were the background to the birth of his theory of evolution, and the ideas of change, competition, and development found in the theory of evolution also reflect the society of England, a developed capitalist country at the time. When the theory of evolution was first announced, the intellectual world was somewhat shocked, but ultimately accepted it, probably because the foundation for such acceptance was already present in society at the time. However, it is said that nothing has shaken people's religious faith as much as the theory of evolution. The idea that living things evolve, especially that humans evolved from monkeys, denies Christian doctrine, and it is well known that Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford launched a fierce attack on it immediately after the publication of "On the Origin of Species." Furthermore, considering that until recently some states in the United States banned the teaching of evolution in public schools, and that there were court battles over whether both the theory of evolution and the theory of creation as taught in the Old Testament should be taught, the debate between the theory of evolution and religion has continued for more than a century. The theory of evolution was seen by capitalism, which was in its rising phase, as an idea of progress, believing that society would develop just as living things would. Meanwhile, K. Marx, who was formulating a theory for the transition from capitalism to socialism during this period, cited Darwin in Das Kapital. F. Engels, while pointing out the flaws in Darwinism in Dialectics of Nature, highly praised it as one of the theories that supports a dialectical view of nature, along with the law of conservation of energy and the cell theory. Darwin himself did not think of deducing the theory of evolution to human society, but after Darwin, a school of thought emerged that attempted to apply natural selection and the struggle for survival to society as is, and this was called social Darwinism. This was a reactionary school of thought that asserted that the survival of the fittest and the law of the jungle between individuals in human society were universal principles in society, and furthermore, schools of thought emerged that extended the struggle for survival not only between individuals but also between classes, nations, ethnic groups, and races, and that rather than the survival of the fittest, the selection of the weak should be carried out, and that poverty and war were inevitable. Galton, Darwin's cousin, founded eugenics. He argued that in civilized society, people with inferior qualities survive due to humanitarianism, but this goes against the principle of natural selection, and that for the sake of social progress, only those with genetically determined superior qualities should be left to reproduce, and that to achieve this, human genetic improvement should be achieved through sterilization and other methods. Eugenics is the theoretical background for racial discrimination, such as immigration restrictions and sterilization laws caused by the anti-black movement in the United States, and the expulsion of Jews and mass murder by Nazi Germany during World War II. Eugenics was revived in 1972 as sociobiology, and various debates are currently ongoing regarding its form, but the issue of sperm banks in the United States, in which Nobel Prize winners are involved, is one manifestation of this ideology. The theory of evolution was introduced to Japan by American biologist E.S. Morse in the early Meiji period, and later Oka Asajiro popularized Darwinism by writing Lectures on Evolution (1904). This was a time when Western ideas were being introduced to Japan in general after the Meiji Restoration, so Darwinism was accepted ideologically without any resistance, riding the wave of civilization and enlightenment. Unlike in the West, Japan did not have conflict with Christianity, nor was there strong opposition to the continuity between humans and monkeys. The idea of evolution and development of nature and society was rather welcomed by Japanese capitalism, which was in its infancy, but at the same time, reactionary ideas also appeared. Hiroyuki Kato, president of the University of Tokyo, wrote A New Theory of Human Rights (1882), arguing that the struggle for survival and the survival of the fittest through natural selection are inevitable for humans as well, but was refuted by advocates of civil rights. Oka Asajiro also discussed the struggle for survival in human society in newspaper and magazine reviews from the Meiji period to the Taisho period, and expressed social Darwinian ideas. [Shoichiro Usami] [References] | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
この語は生物学におけるC・R・ダーウィンの進化理論をさすほか、より広く社会思想における進化思想一般を意味する側面をもっている。ダーウィンは1859年刊の『種の起原(しゅのきげん)』によって、生物は古来不変なものではなく、長い年月の間に進化してきたことを多くの資料に基づいて科学的に立証し、しかもその進化は、自然選択による適者生存の結果であり、人間も生物として例外ではなく、現存のサルと共通の祖先から分岐して生まれたものであるという学説を提出した。 ダーウィンの進化論は自然科学の合理性を主張することによって世界観を変革し思想界に大きな影響を与えた。ダーウィンの時代、イギリスは産業革命から100年を経過し、産業資本主義の発展期にあり、海外市場の獲得や植民地争奪という自由競争が強化されつつあった。またダーウィン自身は富裕な階級の出身であって、当時の産業資本家たちのもっていた自由で文化的な環境で育てられた。このような社会的条件が彼の進化論を生んだ背景になっており、進化論にみられる変化、競争、発展という理念も当時の資本主義先進国イギリスの社会を反映している。進化論発表当初は、いちおうの衝撃を受けた思想界が結局において進化論を受容したのは、その素地がすでに当時の社会にあったからであろう。 とはいえ、進化論ほど人々の宗教心を揺るがせたものはなかったといわれる。生物が進化すること、とくに人間がサルから進化したという見解は、キリスト教の教義を否定するものであり、『種の起原』出版直後にオックスフォードのウィルバーフォース主教が激しい攻撃を行ったことは有名である。また近年までアメリカの公立学校で進化論を教えることを禁止していた州があったこと、また進化論と『旧約聖書』の説いた創造説の両者を教えるべきだという法廷論争があったことを考えると、進化論と宗教との論争は1世紀以上も続いたことになる。 進化論は、上昇期にあった資本主義からは生物と同様に社会も発展するという進歩の思想として受け止められた。一方、この時代に資本主義から社会主義への移行の理論を構築していたK・マルクスは『資本論』にダーウィンを引用した。F・エンゲルスは『自然弁証法』でダーウィニズムに欠陥が含まれていることを指摘しつつも弁証法的な自然観を支える学説の一つとしてエネルギー保存則、細胞説とともに高く評価している。 ダーウィン自身は進化論を人間社会にまで演繹(えんえき)することは考えていなかったが、ダーウィン以後に自然選択や生存競争をそのまま社会に適用しようとする思想が現れ社会ダーウィン主義とよばれた。人間社会の個人間の優勝劣敗や弱肉強食を社会における普遍的な原理として主張する反動的な思想がそれで、さらに生存競争を個人間のみならず階級や国家、民族や人種の間にも拡張して適者生存よりもむしろ劣者淘汰(とうた)を主張し、貧困や戦争の必然性を主張する思想も現れた。 ダーウィンの従弟(いとこ)のゴルトンは優生学を創始した。そこでは、文明社会では人道主義によって劣悪な素質をもつ者も生き残っているが、これは自然選択の原理に反するとし、社会の進歩のためには、遺伝的に決定されている優秀な素質をもつ者のみを残して繁殖させるべきであり、そのためには断種などによる人間の遺伝的改善をすべきであると主張する。かつてアメリカでおこった黒人排斥運動による移民制限法や断種法、さらに第二次世界大戦中のナチス・ドイツのユダヤ人排斥や大量の虐殺のような人種差別の理論的背景は優生学である。この優生学が1972年から社会生物学として復活し、現在そのあり方をめぐってさまざまな論争が続いているが、たとえばアメリカでノーベル賞受賞者が関係する精子銀行などの問題はこの思想の現れの一つである。 日本への進化論の導入は明治初年にアメリカの生物学者E・S・モースによって行われ、その後、丘浅次郎(おかあさじろう)が『進化論講話』(1904)を書いてダーウィニズムを普及させた。この時代は日本は明治維新後の西欧思想一般の導入期であったため、文明開化の波にのって思想的にもまったく抵抗なしに受容された。日本には欧米のようにキリスト教との対立もなく、人間とサルとの連続性に対する強い反対もなかった。自然や社会の進化発展の思想は草創期にあった日本資本主義にとってむしろ歓迎されたが、同時に反動的な思想も現れている。東京大学総長の加藤弘之(ひろゆき)は『人権新説』(1882)を書き、人間にも生存競争と自然選択による優勝劣敗は必然であると主張し、自由民権論者から反論された。丘浅次郎も明治から大正にかけて新聞や雑誌の評論で人間社会における生存競争について論じ、社会ダーウィン主義的な思想を述べている。 [宇佐美正一郎] [参照項目] | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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