A general term for musical instruments that have a body made of hard materials such as wood or metal, and a membrane-like material such as animal leather attached under strong tension to one or both sides of the body. In terms of musical instrument classification, it is almost the same as a membranophone. However, idiophones that do not have a membrane and are struck directly on the body, such as the slit drums found in Oceania, are also sometimes called drums. The origin of the drum is as old as that of the rattle, and can be seen in a Sumerian relief from around 2500 BC. Even today, drums are used in all regions for sound expression in rituals, and for sending everyday signals and signals. In some cases, the drum itself is personified as a symbol of social value or power, or is regarded as sacred, fulfilling a role beyond that of a musical instrument. The origin of the Japanese word taiko is unclear. In the past, tsuzumi was used as a general term for membranous instruments, but as a result of contact and exchange with Chinese culture, double-sided drums with a narrow waist came to be called tsuzumi, and all other drums came to be called taiko. However, the distinction between the two is not necessarily clear. [Takanori Fujita] structureA drum consists of a membrane that produces vibrations and a body that supports the membrane and produces air vibrations. [Takanori Fujita] filmAlso called leather. Since strong tension is required to produce vibrations, thin, strong materials have been selected based on the ecological conditions of each region. Generally, animal hides such as cowhide and sheep are used, but fish skin is widely used in the Hawaiian Islands, shark stomachs and swim bladders in Micronesia, and lizard skin in New Guinea. In Japan, cowhide is used for the large drums of gagaku and the shime drums of Noh and Kabuki, while tanned leather such as horse and deer is used for drums. In recent years, synthetic resin membranes have been used in Europe, the United States, and Japan, but they tend to be less able to express subtle nuances such as tone compared to traditional materials. The membrane is often circular in shape, which helps to even out tension in the membrane and make it last longer. There are two ways to attach the membrane: either completely attach it to the body with glue or nails, or prepare a frame that matches the diameter of the body, clamp the membrane between the frame and attach it to the body, and then insert wedges or other tools to fine-tune it. This method produces a relatively stable pitch. Another method is to pass strings through several places on the membrane and pull them to attach it to the body. This method makes it easy to adjust the tension. [Takanori Fujita] TorsoThere are various shapes, and membranophones are classified based on this, but they can be broadly divided into three types: frame-shaped, kettle-shaped, and cylindrical. (1) Frame type: A membrane stretched over a shallow, ring-shaped frame. This includes the Western tambourine, thought to have originated in the Middle East, and the Indian kanjira. The Japanese fan drum is also classified as this type. (2) Kama-gata: A membrane stretched over the top of a kettle. Because the pitch is relatively fixed due to its structure, it is often played in pairs of large and small sounds of different pitches. This includes the Western timpani, its ancestor, the Arab nakkara, and the bayan of North India's tabla baya. (3) Cylindrical type: There are many types, which are further classified into cylindrical, conical, barrel, hourglass, and goblet shapes. There are two types of cylindrical drums: double-sided, which have membranes on both ends, and single-sided, which have membranes on only one side. There are two-sided cylindrical drums, such as the European large drum (o-daiko) (bass drum), the small drum (side drum), the large drum (daibyoshi) used in Sato Kagura, and the barrel drum (okedo) used in Kabuki music. Even with a double-sided drum, only one side may be played depending on how it is set up. For example, a barrel drum may be worn on the chest by a dancer in a taiko dance and beat both sides with a stick, while in Kabuki music it may be placed on a stand and one side may be played with a single stick. Side drums are attached to the front of the body and only one side is played while walking, so wire strings are stretched over the other side to improve the sound. Cylindrical single-sided drums that are played standing on the ground are widely distributed throughout Polynesia, including the Pahu drums in the Hawaiian Islands. Typical double-sided conical drums are found in many parts of Africa, such as the tenga of Uganda. Single-sided conical drums include the tabla of North India. However, there is no significant difference in pronunciation between cylindrical, conical, and barrel-shaped drums, and a tabla can be either cylindrical or conical. A barrel-shaped drum has a bulge in the center of the body, and is usually made by hollowing out a piece of wood. Typical examples of barrel-shaped double-sided drums are the large drum (odaiko) (long-bodied drum) often used in Kabuki music and Bon Odori, and the kendang used in Indonesian gamelan. The kendang is longer and thinner than the Japanese one. The Japanese large drum (daiko) and shime-daiko are also barrel-shaped double-sided drums, but their shape is very close to cylindrical. Also, in India there are gourd-made drums that are almost spherical. Barrel-shaped single-sided drums that are played by placing them on the floor are found in West Africa and other areas. In contrast to the barrel-shaped drum, those with a narrow waist in the middle are called hourglass-shaped. Hourglass-shaped double-sided drums include the Japanese drum, the Korean stick drum (chanko), and the West African kalunga, all of which have a string that is passed back and forth over the edges of the membrane on both sides to add tension and change the tone and pitch. Hourglass-shaped single-sided drums are widely distributed in New Guinea, India, and the Arabian Peninsula. The goblet-shaped drum was named for its resemblance to a goblet, but most are single-sided drums that are set on the ground and played. Some have hollow legs that connect to the main body, while others are shaped like the feet of humans or animals and serve both as decoration and a stand. The former are found in Africa and Polynesia, such as the darbuka, which is widely distributed in Western Asia and North Africa, while the latter are found in Africa and Polynesia. [Takanori Fujita] Playing techniqueMost instruments are generally produced by striking the membrane directly with a stick or bat, or with the bare hand. Striking causes the membrane to vibrate, creating air vibrations inside the body. The volume, timbre and pitch are determined by the size and shape of the body, and the material and tension of the membrane. The timbre also changes depending on where it is struck, with a dull sound produced at the centre of the membrane and a sharp sound at the periphery. Furthermore, in India, Melanesia and other places, the timbre is changed by applying a sticky substance to the membrane. In addition, there are types such as the Japanese den-den drum and the Indian damar, which indirectly strike the membrane by shaking a small ball attached to a string, the European Rommelpot, which produces sound by pulling a stick or string protruding from the membrane and rubbing the membrane, and the Indian komok, which transmits vibrations to the membrane by plucking a string stretched vertically from the center of the membrane.The mirliton is also called a singing drum, but in appearance it resembles a flute. [Takanori Fujita] Usage and performanceTaiko drums cannot express pitch clearly, and unlike bowed string instruments or wind instruments, the sound decays quickly. However, on the other hand, they excel at expressing beats clearly, so they are often used in ensembles rather than solos. Also, like the timpanis in an orchestra, they are suitable for expressing the increase and decrease in the volume of the ensemble. Because of these advantages, taiko drummers often play a leading role in ensembles. On the other hand, when used alone, it becomes a musical instrument that transmits messages such as signals and signals. From the Middle Ages to the early modern period in Europe, snare drums were used for military signals and various signals on ships. In Japan, the general term for military instruments is jindaiko, which were used together with gongs and conches to send different signals. Although not quite a signal, drums are also used in a ritualistic way at certain times and places to enhance the atmosphere. The touch drums used in sumo wrestling are one example. In kabuki music, a series of striking patterns (hand movements) are sometimes used to express a particular scene. For example, in a snowy scene there is a specific hand movement that symbolizes snow, and other onomatopoeic depictions of waves, rain, wind, etc. are also formulated. Hand movements such as first drum and uchidashi are also used in accordance with the progress of the play, to communicate the time structure of the theater to the listeners. These drum movements have an arbitrary associative relationship between the sound pattern and the meaning they convey. Perhaps the most direct link between drumming and meaning is African talking drums. Talking drums often directly imitate the rhythm and intonation of spoken language, substituting it for instrumental sounds. In such cases, the listener can read the original spoken language from the instrumental sounds. The conversion to talking drums allows the message to be conveyed over greater distances, and these messages are characterized by a more esoteric quality than spoken language. The sound and rhythm of spoken language have a great influence on taiko performance. The oral singing (kuchishoga) used in most taiko lessons in Japan is also called mouth drumming in folk performing arts. This helps to memorize the sequence of musical patterns with a succession of sounds such as teretsukutenten, and leads to smooth playing. In North India, there is also a memorization method similar to oral singing called bol for the tabla. [Takanori Fujita] functionAt first, there was no vibrating skin, but later animal skins were stretched over them, and the number of types increased. The oldest record is said to be a carved drum from Sumer in the Ancient Orient, before 2500 BC. Drums are one of the earliest musical instruments invented, and are used almost everywhere in the world for a variety of purposes. Their rhythm and sound are used not only for entertainment and musical expression as art, but also to intimidate or repel enemies or animals, and as a mystical instrument, in magic and rituals. The drums themselves and their sounds are often sacred. They are also used as various signals, and the above-mentioned functions are often used in combination. Due to their mystical, sacred, and magical nature, they are decorated with elaborate ornaments and are subject to taboos. In various rituals, the players may be religious officials, professional players, or anyone of their own volition. In either case, sound and rhythm are often used as the main medium to induce a state of possession or trance. In West Africa, it was also used to tell the genealogy of dynasties, and was once used to communicate plans for rebellion among black slaves in the Americas. In general, drums are considered to be symbols of the female body, and drumsticks are considered to be symbols of the male genitalia. [Yoshiko Nagashima] "Japanese Musical Instruments - Encyclopedia of Japanese Musical Instruments" by Naoo Tanabe (1964, Kashiwa Publishing) "Percussion Encyclopedia" by Keisuke Ajiro and Tomoyuki Okada (1981, Ongaku No Tomosha) [References] | | |Staff | | | | | | | | |Late 19th century, clay and leather, height 20.3 x diameter 20.3 cm (right), owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Iran Nakkala Late 19th century, terracotta, height 27.9 x diameter 17.8 cm, owned by the Syrian Metropolitan Museum of Art Darbuka Diameter: approx. 81.3 cm © Yamaha "> Bass Drum Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
木や金属などの堅い物質でできた胴の片面ないし両面に、動物の革などの膜状の物質を強い張力で取り付けた楽器の総称。楽器分類学上は膜鳴楽器にほぼ一致する。しかし、オセアニアなどにみられるスリット・ドラム(割れ目太鼓)のように、膜をもたず胴体を直接たたく体鳴楽器を太鼓とよぶこともある。 太鼓の起源は「がらがら」(ラットル)と並んで古く、紀元前2500年ごろのシュメールの浮彫りにみられる。現在でもあらゆる地域で、儀礼における音表現、日常的な信号や合図の発信などに用いられている。また、太鼓の本体そのものが、社会的価値や権力の象徴として人格化してとらえられたり、神聖視されるなど、楽器を超えた役割を果たす場合がある。 日本語の太鼓の起源は不明である。古くは膜鳴楽器の総称として鼓(つづみ)が使われたが、中国文化との接触・交流の結果、胴にくびれがある両面太鼓を鼓、それ以外のものを太鼓とよぶようになった。しかし両者の区別はかならずしも明確ではない。 [藤田隆則] 構造太鼓は振動を生み出す膜と、膜を支えかつ空気振動をつくりだす胴からなる。 [藤田隆則] 膜皮ともよばれる。振動を生じさせるために強い緊張を強いられるため、薄くて強度の高い素材が各地域の生態的条件のなかで選び取られてきた。一般に牛や羊などの獣皮が多いが、ハワイ諸島では魚の皮、ミクロネシアではサメの胃袋やうきぶくろなど、ニューギニアではトカゲの皮が広く用いられている。日本では雅楽の大太鼓(だだいこ)や能・歌舞伎(かぶき)の締(しめ)太鼓には牛革、鼓類には馬や鹿(しか)などのなめし革を用いる。近年、合成樹脂の膜が欧米や日本で用いられるが、伝統的な素材と比べて音色などの微妙なニュアンスを表現しにくいきらいがある。 膜の形は円形が多い。これは膜の緊張度に偏りをなくし、長もちさせることにつながる。 膜の取り付け方には、にかわ、釘(くぎ)などで胴に完全に固定する方法、胴の直径にあった枠を用意し、その枠で膜を挟み込んで胴に固定し、さらにくさびなどを差し込むことで微調整をする方法の二つがまずあげられる。この方法によれば、比較的安定した音高が得られる。また、膜の何か所かに紐(ひも)を通して、それを引っ張って胴に固定する方法もある。この方法では、張力の調節が容易となる。 [藤田隆則] 胴さまざまな形態があり、これに基づいて膜鳴楽器の分類がなされているが、大きく枠形、釜(かま)形、筒形の三つに分けられる。 (1)枠形 浅い輪形の枠に膜を張ったもの。中東起源と思われる西洋のタンバリンやインドのカンジーラなどが含まれる。日本の団扇(うちわ)太鼓もこれに分類される。 (2)釜形 釜の上部を覆うように膜が張られているもの。構造上、音高が比較的固定されているので、しばしば異なる音高の大小を対にして演奏される。西洋のティンパニ、その祖先とされるアラブのナッカーラ、北インドのタブラ・バヤのバヤンなどが含まれる。 (3)筒形 種類が多く、さらに円筒形、円錐(えんすい)形、樽(たる)形、砂時計形、ゴブレット形に下位分類される。それぞれ、膜が両端についている両面太鼓と、一方のみの片面太鼓の2種類ある。 円筒両面太鼓には、ヨーロッパの大太鼓(おおだいこ)(バス・ドラム)、小太鼓(サイド・ドラム)、里神楽(さとかぐら)で使われる大拍子(だいびょうし)、歌舞伎囃子(はやし)で用いる桶胴(おけどう)などがある。両面太鼓であっても、設置の仕方に応じて片面のみを打奏する場合がある。桶胴を例にとれば、太鼓踊りなどの舞い手が胸につけて、両面を桴(ばち)で打ちながら踊る場合もあれば、歌舞伎囃子では台に置いて、片面を1本の桴で打奏する場合もある。またサイド・ドラムは、身体の前面に取り付け、歩行しながら片面だけを打奏するので、他方の面にはワイヤ弦などを張り渡し、響きをよくするくふうが添えられている。円筒形片面太鼓は、ハワイ諸島のパフをはじめ、地面に立てて奏するタイプがポリネシアに広く分布している。円錐形両面太鼓の典型的なものは、ウガンダのテンガなどアフリカに多くみられる。円錐形片面太鼓には北インドのタブラが含まれる。しかし、円筒形と円錐形、樽形には発音上の大差はなく、タブラは円筒形でも円錐形でもありうる。 樽形は胴の中央部に膨らみをもつもので、たいていは木をくりぬいて製作する。樽形両面太鼓の典型例は、歌舞伎囃子や盆踊りなどに多用される大太鼓(おおだいこ)(長胴太鼓)やインドネシアのガムランに使用するクンダンである。クンダンは日本のものより細長い形をしている。日本の大太鼓(だだいこ)や締太鼓も樽形両面太鼓であるが、その形は円筒形に非常に近い。また、インドにはひょうたん製のほとんど球形に近いものもみられる。樽形片面太鼓は、床に置いて奏するタイプが西アフリカなどにみられる。 樽形に対して、胴の中央部にくびれのあるものは砂時計形とよばれる。砂時計形両面太鼓には日本の鼓、朝鮮の杖鼓(じょうこ)(チャンコ)、西アフリカのカルンガなどがあり、いずれも両面の膜の縁に紐を何往復も渡して張力を加え、音色や音高に変化をつける。砂時計形片面太鼓は、ニューギニア、インド、アラブに広く分布している。 ゴブレット形はコップのゴブレットに似ているためつけられた名であるが、大地に据え付けて奏する片面太鼓が多い。脚部は、空洞で本体と続いているもの、人間や動物などの足をかたどって装飾と台の機能を兼ね備えているものがある。前者は西アジアや北アフリカに広く分布するダルブカなど、後者はアフリカ、ポリネシアに多くみられる。 [藤田隆則] 奏法一般に、膜面を桴や棒または素手で直接たたいて発音するタイプが多い。打つことによって膜が振動し、胴内に空気振動がつくられる。胴の大きさや形、膜の材質や張りの強さによって、音量や音色、音高が決まる。音色は打奏箇所によっても変化し、膜の中心部では鈍い音、周辺部では鋭い音が出る。さらにインドやメラネシアなどでは、粘着性の物質を膜につけることによって、音色に変化をつける。 このほか、日本のでんでん太鼓やインドのダマルなどのように紐付きの小球を振ることによって間接的に膜面を打奏するタイプ、ヨーロッパのロンメルポットのように膜面から出た棒や紐を引っ張り、膜をこすって発音する擦奏(さっそう)タイプ、インドのコモックのように膜の中央部から垂直に張られた弦をはじいて、膜に振動を伝える摘奏(てきそう)タイプがある。なお、ミルリトンなどは歌奏太鼓ともいうが、形態上は笛の類に似ている。 [藤田隆則] 用法と演奏太鼓は、音高が明瞭(めいりょう)に表現できないし、擦弦楽器や吹奏楽器と違って音の減衰が速い。しかし逆に、拍節を明確に表現しうる点には優れているので、独奏よりもむしろ合奏のなかで使われることが多い。またオーケストラのティンパニのように合奏音量の増減を表現するのにも適している。以上のような長所から、太鼓の演奏者は合奏のなかで統括的役割を果たしていることが多い。 逆に、単独で用いられる場合には、信号や合図などのメッセージを発信する音具となる。ヨーロッパ中世から近世にかけて、小太鼓は軍隊の信号、船上でのあらゆる合図に使われた。日本でも軍楽器の総称として陣太鼓があり、鉦(かね)や法螺(ほら)貝とともに用いられ、いくつかの合図を使い分けた。 信号とまではいかなくても、特定の場や時間に、一定の奏法で太鼓を打ち鳴らして場の雰囲気を高める、いわば儀礼的な使われ方もある。相撲(すもう)の触れ太鼓はその一例といえよう。また、歌舞伎囃子などで、特定の情景を表出するために一連の打奏のパターン(手)を使うことがある。たとえば、雪の場面には雪を象徴する特定の手があり、そのほか波、雨、風などの擬音的な描写も定式化されている。また、舞台の進行状況とあわせて、一番太鼓、打出しなどの手を打ち、聴き手に劇場の時間構造を伝達している。これらの太鼓の手は、音型と伝えられる意味内容との間に恣意(しい)的な連合関係がある。 太鼓の打奏と意味内容がより直接的な形で結び付いているのは、アフリカの太鼓ことば(トーキング・ドラム)であろう。太鼓ことばは、話しことば固有のリズムやイントネーションを直接的に模倣して楽器音に置き換えることが多い。聴き手はその場合、楽器音からもとの話しことばを読む。太鼓ことばへの変換は、より遠くまでメッセージの通達が可能であり、しかもそのメッセージは話しことばよりも秘儀性を帯びるという特徴をもっている。 太鼓の演奏において、話しことばの音韻やリズムの影響は大きい。日本のほとんどの太鼓の教授で使われる口唱歌(くちしょうが)は、民俗芸能では口太鼓ともよばれる。テレツクテンテンというような音韻の連続で音型のまとまりを記憶し、かつスムーズな打奏を導き出すことに役だっている。北インドのタブラにも、ボルとよばれる口唱歌に似た記憶法がある。 [藤田隆則] 機能初めは振動皮がなく、のちに動物皮が張られ種類も多くなった。紀元前2500年以前の古代オリエント、シュメールの彫刻の太鼓が最古の記録とされる。太鼓はもっとも早くに発明された楽器の一つで、世界のほぼ全域で使用され、利用目的も多様である。そのリズムと音響は娯楽や芸術としての音楽表現のほか、敵や動物を威嚇したり、撃退したり、また神秘性を帯びたものとして呪術(じゅじゅつ)や祭祀(さいし)にも用いられる。太鼓自体や太鼓の音を神聖化することも多い。種々のシグナルとしても利用され、また上記した諸機能がしばしば複合的に用いられる。その神秘性、神聖性、魔術性により、凝った装飾が施されたり、タブーが課せられたりする。諸儀礼のなかでは、宗教的職能者が奏者になる場合、専門職の奏者がいる場合、任意の者がなる場合などがある。いずれにしろ、音とリズムを主要な媒介として憑依(ひょうい)やトランス(脱我)状態を導くことが多い。 西アフリカでは王朝の系譜語りにも使われ、かつてアメリカ大陸の黒人奴隷の間では反乱計画の伝達にも用いられた。一般に太鼓は女性の身体、ばちは男性器の象徴ともされる。 [長嶋佳子] 『田辺尚雄著『日本の楽器――日本楽器事典』(1964・柏出版)』▽『網代景介・岡田知之著『打楽器事典』(1981・音楽之友社)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | |19世紀後半 粘土・革 高さ20.3×直径20.3cm(右) イランメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> ナッカーラ 19世紀後半 テラコッタ 高さ27.9×直径17.8cm シリアメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> ダルブカ 径約81.3cm©ヤマハ"> バス・ドラム 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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