This refers to architecture whose main structure (body) is made of stone, and belongs to the masonry construction type. Stone architecture can be divided into two types: the walls are made of stone, and the roof and floor are made of stone using a vault or dome construction method, or the rafters and floor trusses are made of timber. Stone architecture is a term that includes all of these. There are two methods of masonry: random stone masonry and regular stone masonry. Random stone masonry is where natural stones are piled up as is, while regular stone masonry is where stones that have been cut into a set shape are piled up. Mortar is usually used to bond the stones together, but when stacking large stones, friction at the contact surface may be relied upon. To make this more secure, tenons are made, or holes called dowels are drilled on both contact surfaces and iron cores are inserted into them to secure the stones together. In either case, just like brick masonry, it is important to avoid imomeji (joints that run vertically in a straight line). When the wall thickness is large in regular stone masonry, roughly cut stones are placed inside the wall and finely cut stones are stacked only on the surface. In this case, the stonework inside is called no-tsumi and the stonework on the surface is called kou-tsumi. In addition to being polished smoothly, the surfaces of the stones used in decorative masonry can also be finished with a rough surface, and depending on the degree of roughness, they are classified as Kotatataki, Bishan, Kobudashi, etc. Furthermore, surfaces that have a border of a certain width around all four sides are called Edokiri in Japan. In contrast, surfaces that are not processed, including those in random stone masonry, are called Nozura. The types of stone used in stone architecture are diverse, including granite, andesite (all igneous rocks), limestone, and sandstone (all sedimentary rocks). Generally, igneous rocks are hard and dense but difficult to work with, while sedimentary rocks have the opposite characteristics. Also, different types of materials may be used for open piling and decorative piling. For example, ordinary limestone may be used for open piling, and marble (a type of limestone) or granite for decorative piling. [Yamada Koichi] historyNaturally, stone architecture first developed in areas with abundant stone resources, and ancient Egypt is a typical example. In this respect, it contrasts with neighboring Mesopotamia, which built a sophisticated civilization at roughly the same time, and was poor in stone, so although it also had masonry structures, it was mainly built with bricks. Egypt is blessed with limestone, and granite is produced in Aswan, in the middle reaches of the Nile. The Great Pyramid (c. 2500 BC) used limestone rough stones for the open pile, polished limestone for the surface decoration, and granite for the internal stone chamber. However, the most representative stone construction in Egypt was temple architecture. The Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (c. 1500 BC) and the Great Temple of Amon (c. 1100 BC) are good examples, and although rudimentary overhanging arches were known in ancient Egypt, true arches were not used, and instead, lintel-type construction using stone was adopted. This made it difficult to create large spans of space, and inevitably forced columns to be placed closely together, which became one of the characteristics of Egyptian temples. This stone lintel construction method was also used in classical Greece, and all Greek temples, including the Parthenon (438 BC), which is praised for its symmetrical beauty, were built using this method. It was not until the Roman era that arches were freely used in stone construction, and therefore it became possible to create large spans of space using domes and vaults. The Hagia Sophia (537), a representative example of Byzantine architecture, has a large stone dome with a diameter of 31 meters. Since then, stone construction has become the mainstream of architecture in Europe, along with brick construction. In both cases, the walls are load-bearing walls, so the walls are heavy and solid, creating an exterior that is worthy of being called "architecture of walls," compared to Japanese architecture, which emphasizes the roof. In China, temples built of stone or brick (kiln-fired bricks) called "beam-free halls" have been built since the Yuan dynasty (e.g. Linggu Temple, late 14th century). These temples are so named because they have a stone vaulted roof and do not use any axis like wooden beams, but in some cases they are moved underground and used as tombs. One of the 13 Ming Tombs, Ding Mausoleum (Shenzong Mausoleum, No. 1620), is a good example of this, and is a magnificent stone structure worthy of being called an underground palace. However, in China, brick construction is generally more prevalent, and stone construction is not as common as in Europe. This trend is also seen on the Korean peninsula, although one notable example is Seokguram Grotto in Gyeongju (mid-8th century). A stone dome with a diameter of about 7 meters is erected here, and although its scale is smaller than those in Western Europe, it is worth noting its originality, as the shapes of the stones that make up the dome are changed depending on which part is used to strengthen the structure, and the stones themselves are decorated with carvings of floral patterns and other designs. In Japan, stone was used for the stone coffins of ancient tombs (e.g. Takamatsuzuka, made of tuff), but its use in above-ground structures was limited to civil engineering (e.g. stone bridges), and in architectural works it was limited to foundations and cornerstones, and its use as a structural component continued until the end of the Edo period, just as it did in brick construction. There is a description of a "stone palace and stone storehouse" in the "Tsukushi no Kuni Fudoki," but since it is written alongside stone men and stone beasts, it should be considered a model rather than a practical building. The first stone buildings in Japan were battery batteries (e.g. Nishinomiya Sekiho Tower, 1863) used as coastal defense facilities during the late Edo period. After that, the use of stone increased with the influx of Western civilization, but pure stone buildings are unknown except for small-scale examples from the early period, and stone was mostly used in conjunction with brickwork. At first glance, the great dome of Tokyo Nicholas Cathedral (1891, designed by Conder) resembles stone construction, but the framework is steel, and even this was not spared from damage in the Great Kanto Earthquake, after which stone buildings were virtually impossible to build, just like brick construction. The use of stone buildings as storehouses in place of earthen storehouses in northern Kanto, which produces a lot of Oya stone, is rather an exception compared to the rest of the country. The reason stone architecture did not take root in Japan is probably due to the shortcomings of masonry architecture itself, such as the difficulty of creating wide openings and its vulnerability to earthquakes, just like brick construction. In modern Japan, when a stone building is required, the structure is made of reinforced concrete and stone is attached to the interior and exterior. The largest building constructed using this method is the National Diet Building (1936). [Yamada Koichi] [Reference] | |A temple dedicated to Amun, the supreme national god. It was designed by Senmut, a favorite of Queen Hatshepsut, during the 18th Dynasty. The three terraces are connected by a ramp. Part of the World Heritage Site "Ancient Thebes and its Necropolis" (Egypt, registered in 1979) Luxor, Egypt ©Shogakukan "> Temple of Hatshepsut A temple built in the center of the Athenian Acropolis. Designed by the ancient Greek architect Ictinos, it was completed around 438 BC. It is about 30m wide and 70m deep, and has 46 Doric marble columns. Part of the World Heritage Site "Acropolis of Athens" (Greece, registered in 1987) Greece Athens ©Shogakukan "> Parthenon Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
主体構造部(躯体(くたい))を石材で構成した建築をいい、組積式構造に属する。石造建築は壁体を石積みにし、かつボールトまたはドーム構法を用いて石材で屋蓋(おくがい)や床をつくる場合と、小屋組みや床組みは木骨で組む場合とがある。石造建築とはこれらすべてを含めた呼称である。 石積みの方法には乱(らん)石積みと整(せい)石積みがある。乱石積みは天然の石をそのまま積み上げるもの、整石積みは一定の形に加工した石を積み上げるものである。積み上げにはモルタルを使用して相互の接着を図るのが普通であるが、大きい石を積む場合は接触面の摩擦力に依存することがあり、それをより確実にするため枘(ほぞ)をつくりだし、あるいは太枘(だぼ)といって接触面の双方に孔(あな)をうがち、そこへ鉄の芯(しん)を差し込んで緊結するくふうもなされている。いずれの場合も芋目地(いもめじ)(垂直方向に一直線に通る目地)を避けなければならないことはれんが積みと同様である。整石積みにおいて壁厚が大きくなるときは壁体の内部には粗加工の石を置き、表面のみに精巧に加工した石を積むが、その場合、内部の石積みを野(の)積み、表面のそれを化粧積みという。化粧積みの石の面は平滑に磨き上げるもののほか、粗面に仕上げることもあり、その粗さの程度によって小叩(こたた)き、びしゃん、瘤出(こぶだ)しなどの別があり、さらに、その面の四周を一定の幅に縁どりするものを日本では江戸切りとよぶ。これに対し乱石積みの場合をも含め、加工を施さない面を野面(のづら)という。 石造建築に用いる石材の種類は花崗岩(かこうがん)、安山岩(以上火成岩)、石灰岩、砂岩(以上堆積(たいせき)岩)など多様で、一般に火成岩は硬く緻密(ちみつ)であるが加工しにくく、堆積岩は逆の特徴をもつ。また野積みと化粧積みとで材種をかえる場合もある。たとえば野積みには普通の石灰岩を用い、化粧積みには大理石(石灰岩の一種)や花崗岩を用いるなどである。 [山田幸一] 歴史石造建築はまず石材資源の豊富な地域に発達することは当然で、古代エジプトがその典型である。この点、そこに隣接し、ほぼ同じ時代に高い文明を築いたメソポタミアでは石材に乏しかったため、同じく組積式構造とはいいながら主としてれんが造に終始したのと対照的である。エジプトは石灰岩に恵まれ、またナイル中流のアスワンには花崗岩を産する。大ピラミッド(前2500ころ)は野積みに石灰岩の粗石、表面の化粧に磨いた石灰岩を用い、内部の石室には花崗岩を積んでいる。しかしエジプトで石造を代表するものは神殿建築にとどめを刺す。ハトシェプスト女王葬祭殿(前1500ころ)やアモン大神殿(前1100ころ)はその好例であるが、古代エジプトでは初歩的な迫(せり)出し式アーチは知られていても、真のアーチは使用されておらず、石材による楣(まぐさ)式構法が採用されていた。このため大スパンの空間をとることが困難で、いきおい柱を密に立てざるをえず、このことがエジプト神殿の一つの特徴となっている。この石造による楣式構法は古典ギリシアでも同様で、均斉美を称揚されるパルテノン神殿(前438)をはじめギリシア神殿はすべてこの構法によっている。石造でアーチを自由に使いこなすようになるのはローマ時代に入ってからで、したがってドームやボールトによる大スパン空間をつくることも可能となった。ビザンティン建築の代表例であるハギア・ソフィア寺院(537)では径31メートルに及ぶ石造大ドームを架している。以来、ヨーロッパにおいてはれんが造と並んで石造が建築の主流をなす。いずれも壁体は耐力壁となるから壁の表現は重厚で、日本の建築が屋根を目だたせるのに比し「壁の建築」とよぶにふさわしい外観をつくることになる。 中国では無梁殿(むりょうでん)と称する石または塼(せん)(窯焼きれんが)築の寺院が元代以降建設されている(例、霊谷寺、14世紀後半)。これは石でボールトの屋蓋をつくり、木造における梁(はり)のような軸材を用いないのでこの名があるが、これをそのまま地下に移して墳墓とする場合もある。明(みん)十三陵のうちの定陵(神宗陵、1620号)がその好例で、地下宮殿とよぶにふさわしい壮麗な石造建築を築いている。しかし中国では総じてれんが造が普及し、石造はヨーロッパほどには用いられていない。この傾向は朝鮮半島でも同様であるが、ただ特記すべきものとして慶州石窟庵(せっくつあん)(8世紀中葉)がある。ここでは径約7メートルの石造ドームが架されており、規模こそ西欧のそれに比して劣るが、ドームを構成する石材の形状を使用部位によって変化させて構造の強化を図り、かつ石材そのものに花紋などの彫刻を施して装飾した独創性はみるべきである。 日本では古墳の石槨(せっかく)(例、高松塚。材種は凝灰岩)などに用いることはあっても、地上構築物での石材の使用は土木工事(石橋など)に限られ、建築工事には基壇、礎石などにとどまり、これで躯体を構成することは、れんが造の場合と同様、江戸時代末まで絶えてなかった。『筑紫国風土記(つくしのくにふどき)』に「石殿・石蔵」の記述はあるが、これは石人・石獣と併記されていることから、実用の建物ではなく模型と考えるべきものであろう。日本で石造建築がつくられるのは、幕末期の海防施設としての砲台(例、西宮石堡(せきほ)塔、1863)が最初である。以後、西欧文明の流入とともに石材の使用も増すが、純粋の石造建築は初期の小規模な例を除いて知られておらず、ほとんどがれんが積みと併用されている。東京ニコライ聖堂(1891、コンドル設計)の大ドームは一見石造を彷彿(ほうふつ)させるが、これも骨組は鉄骨であり、しかもこれとて関東大震災で損傷を免れられず、その後、石造建築が事実上建てられなくなったことは、れんが造と軌を一にする。大谷石(おおやいし)を多産する北関東で土蔵にかわる倉庫として石造建築が用いられているのは全国的にみればむしろ例外的存在であろう。このように日本で石造建築が定着しなかった理由は、やはりれんが造の場合と同様、広い開口をとりにくく、地震に弱い組積造建築そのものの欠点が災いしたためと思われる。 現在の日本で石造建築の体裁を必要とするときは、鉄筋コンクリートなどで躯体をつくり、内外装に石材を張り付ける方法がとられている。この方法によった最大の建築が国会議事堂(1936)である。 [山田幸一] [参照項目] | |最高の国家神アメンを祀る神殿。第18王朝のとき、ハトシェプスト女王の寵臣センムトが設計した。3段のテラスが傾斜路で結ばれている。世界文化遺産「古代都市テーベとその墓地遺跡」の一部(エジプト・1979年登録) エジプト ルクソール©Shogakukan"> ハトシェプスト女王葬祭殿 アテネのアクロポリスの中心部に建つ神殿。古代ギリシアの建築家イクティノスの設計で、紀元前438年ごろに完成した。幅約30m、奥行き約70mで、ドーリス式の大理石列柱は46本を数える。世界文化遺産「アテネのアクロポリス」の一部(ギリシア・1987年登録) ギリシア アテネ©Shogakukan"> パルテノン神殿 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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