Drainage system

Japanese: 水系 - すいけい(英語表記)drainage system
Drainage system

A general term that includes the main stream and all tributaries of a river, a collection of channels with a common outlet. Also called a river system or drainage system. In the strict sense, a river system is a general term for surface water that belongs to the same system, mainly rivers, but may also include lakes and ponds. In the narrow sense, a river system does not include lakes and ponds. No river consists of just one channel from its source to its mouth; many channels come together and merge repeatedly to gradually become larger. Therefore, the planar shape of a river system is like a tree, as the channels tend to converge and become fewer as they reach the downstream, but on deltas, for example, the channels branch out and create branches.

A water system map or river system map is a map showing the planar arrangement of river channels extracted from a topographical map. A network of river channels shown as a series of lines, ignoring the width of the river channels, is called a river network or drainage network. The purpose of making a water system map is to understand the characteristics of a river network, but it is not complete if you only extract the blue waterline symbols on a topographical map. In the case of 1:50,000-scale topographical maps published by the Geospatial Information Authority of Japan, river channels with a width of less than 1.5 meters are not shown as waterline symbols, even if there is a water flow. Therefore, the waterline is extended by tracing the valley part that is slightly concave toward the upstream side from the bend of the contour line as much as possible. A water system map can show various characteristics of a river network qualitatively and quantitatively. For example, it can show the degree of development of the river network, which is called the river system organization or "grain" that represents the relative intervals of the river system. Usually, the "grain" is classified as fine, medium, or coarse. It is difficult to express this quantitatively, but it can be expressed to some extent by drainage system density and drainage system frequency. Drainage system density indicates the length of drainage systems per unit area, and is also called stream density or river density. Drainage system frequency is the number of drainage systems within a unit area. Drainage system density and drainage system frequency are roughly proportional to each other, but sometimes they are not proportional. Factors that affect drainage system density include climate, vegetation, rocks, soil, precipitation, infiltration capacity, and relief. In general, drainage system density is considered to be low in sandstone regions and high in shale and slate regions. When impermeable rocks are exposed on the ground surface, there is more water flow than when the rocks are made of permeable materials such as gravel.

The pattern of the arrangement of river channels that appears in part or the whole of a river network, or in multiple river networks, is called a river pattern. River patterns can take various forms depending on the topography and geology of the earth's surface, and the nature and strength of the river's erosion. They usually show a dendritic planar shape, but can sometimes show unique planar shapes controlled by geological structures.

A river network consists of one main stream and several tributaries. There are various types of tributaries, some of which flow directly into the main stream, and some of which flow into the tributaries of the tributaries. For this reason, attempts have been made since ancient times to rank the river channels numerically. The most widely used method today is that proposed by American geomorphologist Arthur Newell Strahler (1918-2002), and is generally called the stream order. A small stream originating from the upstream headwaters is called a first-order stream, a first-order stream and a first-order stream merge into a second-order stream, a second-order stream and a second-order stream merge into a third-order stream, and so on. However, the order does not change if a lower-order stream merges into a higher-order stream. If a fourth-order stream merges with a third-order or lower stream, the order remains fourth. When streams of the same order merge, the downstream increases by one order from the confluence. There is always only one highest-order stream. By dividing the streams into these orders, it becomes possible to treat them topologically. It is suggested that the number, length, drainage area, and average gradient of streams of any order have a geometric proportional relationship with the order, and these laws are called "Horton's Laws of Stream Flow" after Robert Elmer Horton (1875-1945), the American geomorphologist who first proposed the concept of stream orders and these laws, but they do not necessarily fit actual stream networks.

[Shigemi Takayama]

[Reference] | River
Water diagram (basic water pattern)
©Shogakukan ">

Water diagram (basic water pattern)

Topologically similar water system patterns
©Shogakukan ">

Topologically similar water system patterns


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

川の本流と支流のすべてを含めた総称で、共通の排出口をもつ流路の集合体。河系、排水系ともいう。厳密な意味での水系は同一系統に属する地表水の総称で、その主体は河川であるが、湖沼を含む場合もある。狭義の河系は湖沼を含まない。川は水源から河口に至るまでただ1本の流路からなるものはなく、多くの流路が集まって合流を繰り返しながら、しだいに大きな川となる。したがって水系の平面形は下流側に至るほど流路が収斂(しゅうれん)して少なくなる傾向があるため樹木のような形をしているが、三角州上などでは流路が枝分れして分流路を生ずる。

 地形図から流路の部分だけを抜き出してその平面的配置状態を表したものを水系図または河系図という。流路の幅を無視して一連の線分によって表した流路の連絡網を水系網、または排水網という。水系図をつくる目的は水系網のもっている特徴を知ることにあるが、地形図に記されている青色の水線記号を抜き出しただけでは完成しない。国土地理院発行の5万分の1縮尺地形図の場合、実際には水流があっても、川幅が1.5メートル未満の流路は水線記号としては表現されていないからである。そこで、等高線の屈曲の状態から上流側に向かってすこしでもへこんでいる谷の部分を最大限に追いかけて、水線を延長する。水系図によって水系網のいろいろな特性を定性的、定量的に知ることができる。たとえば、水系の相対的間隔を表す水系組織または「きめ」とよばれる水系網の発達の程度がわかる。通常は「きめ」が細かい、中ぐらい、粗いといった程度の分類を行う。これを定量的に表現することは困難であるが、水系密度や水系頻度によってある程度表現できる。水系密度とは単位面積当りの水系の長さを表し、水流密度、河川密度ともいう。水系頻度は単位面積内の水系の本数である。水系密度と水系頻度とはほぼ比例関係にあるが、ときには両者が比例しないこともある。水系密度に影響する因子としては、気候、植生、岩石、土壌、降水量、浸透能、起伏量などが考えられる。一般に、水系密度は砂岩地域で小さく、頁岩(けつがん)や粘板岩地域で大きいとされている。不透水性の岩石が地表面に露出している場合は、砂礫(されき)のような透水性物質からなる場合に比べて水流が多い。

 水系網の一部または全体、あるいは複数の水系網に表れる流路の配置の模様を河系模様または水系パターンという。河系模様は地表の地形や地質、川の侵食作用の性質の相違や強弱によっていろいろな形がある。普通は樹枝状の平面形を示すが、地質構造に支配されて特異な平面形を示すことがある。

 水系網は1本の本流と複数の支流とからなるが、支流にもいろいろあって本流に直接流入する支流もあれば、支流のそのまた支流に流入する小さな支流もある。そこで流路を数値により格づけしようとする試みが古くからなされた。現在もっとも普及している方法はアメリカの地形学者ストレーラーArthur Newell Strahler(1918―2002)が提案した方法であり、一般に水流次数とよばれている。最上流部の水源から発する細流を一次水流とよび、一次水流と一次水流とが合流したものを二次水流、二次水流と二次水流とが合流したものを三次水流というように順次、次数は上昇する。ただし、高次水流に低次水流が合流しても次数は変わらない。四次水流に三次以下の水流が合流しても次数は相変わらず四次である。同次水流が合流すると合流点から下流は一次上昇する。最高次水流はつねに1本しかない。このような次数区分を行って流路を分割することにより位相数学的取扱いが可能となる。任意の次数の水流の本数、長さ、流域面積、平均勾配(こうばい)などは次数との間に幾何級数的な比例関係のあることが示唆され、最初に水系次数の概念とこれらの法則性を提唱したアメリカの地形学者ホートンRobert Elmer Horton(1875―1945)の名をとって「ホートンの水流の諸法則」とよばれているが、現実の水系網はかならずしも適合しない。

[髙山茂美]

[参照項目] |
水系図(水系模様の基本型)
©Shogakukan">

水系図(水系模様の基本型)

位相数学的に相似な水系パターン
©Shogakukan">

位相数学的に相似な水系パターン


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