Copying sutras - Shakyou

Japanese: 写経 - しゃきょう

It refers to the act of copying Buddhist scriptures, or scriptures that have been copied. More broadly, it refers to the copying of works by high priests. In India, the words left by Shakyamuni were passed on by Buddhist disciples orally (by recitation). At that time, there was no custom of writing things down, but they were eventually copied into writing. According to Sri Lankan tradition, copying began around the 1st century BC. Early Mahayana sutras such as the Dogyo Hannyakyo, the Hannya Samadhikyo, and the Lotus Sutra, probably around the time of the birth of Christ, emphasized the merit of copying sutras, and it seems that copying began around that time. Materials used for copying sutras include leaves, bark, and cloth, and in particular the leaves of the palm-like tala tree (baytara), which were called bay-leaf sutras. Before the Islamic invasion of India (12th century), there was no tradition of using paper in India, so palm leaves were the main medium for copying sutras, but even after paper came to be used, the format was the same as palm leaves. The oldest surviving copy of a sutra is the Gandhari Dhammapada (Dhammapada), which was discovered in Khotan, Central Asia. It was written on birch bark and is estimated to date to the 1st or 2nd century. The script is Kharosthi. Later, Brahmi script increased, and eventually sutras written in various regional scripts appeared. Many Sanskrit manuscripts written in Nepalese script remain, mainly from the 12th and 13th centuries. In Sri Lanka, Pali-based manuscripts are written in Sinhalese script, and many manuscripts remain in various countries, including Burmese, Siamese, and Cambodian scripts. Fragments of Sanskrit-based manuscripts have been found widely in Central Asia, and the complete version is widely circulated in Tibet, Mongolia, and other countries' scripts.

[Yoshiaki Ishigami]

China

It seems that Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese in the middle of the 2nd century during the Later Han Dynasty. During this period, Cai Lun invented a paper-making method, and the development of stationery accelerated the trend, influencing the copying of Buddhist scriptures. In addition, the merit of copying Mahayana Buddhist scriptures was emphasized, and since this period coincided with the introduction of Buddhism to China, copying sutras gradually became popular. During the Six Dynasties period, it is said that Emperor Daowu of Wei had the entire Buddhist canon copied, and copying of collected Buddhist scriptures became popular. From the 5th century, the standard form of copying sutras, with 17 characters per line, as has been seen in later generations, was established. From the Sui dynasty to the Tang dynasty, copying sutras reached its heyday, and the decoration of the sutras became splendid, resulting in the creation of the navy blue paper gold-lettered sutras, which were written on paper dyed navy blue. In the Northern Song dynasty, copying of sutras decreased somewhat due to civil war and the spread of printed books made possible by printing technology. In ancient times, characters were written in clerical script, but during the Sui and Tang dynasties, they changed to regular script and the scroll format became established. Due to the influence of printed books, folded books and booklets also appeared. A distinctive feature was the creation of stone carvings of sutras, which were carved into rocks over many generations due to persecution, such as the abolition of Buddhism. Furthermore, the large number of copied sutras discovered in Dunhuang in recent years are valuable as they have greatly promoted the study of Buddhism.

[Yoshiaki Ishigami]

Japan

In Japan, a few fragments of shell leaves that had been scattered in China were discovered, and were introduced overseas during the Meiji period. In the Nihon Shoki, an entry for the 13th year of Emperor Kinmei's reign (552) states that the King of Baekje presented a commentary on the Lotus Sutra, which must have been a copy of the sutra. The Hokke Gisho, said to have been written by Prince Shotoku himself, is a commentary on the Lotus Sutra and is the oldest ink-written work on paper in Japan. It is said that in 672 (the first year of Emperor Tenmu's reign), scribes were gathered at Kawaradera Temple to copy all the sutras, and the oldest surviving copy is the Kongojo Dharani Sutra, which was copied in 686 (the first year of Shucho, the year of Heiju). In the Nara period, a government-run copying office was established, and numerous copies of sutras were made. This was because it was believed that the merit of copying sutras would extend to praying for the good of ancestors, the elimination of sins, and the protection of the nation. The development of copying sutras resulted in the creation of luxurious sutras on dark blue paper, gold or silver paint, or gold and silver paint, or purple paper, and decorative sutras such as the "Heike Nokyo" (a national treasure, housed at Itsukushima Shrine) appeared. Many sutras were also copied to pray for the good fortune of the dead, and Kokerakyo, a type of wooden tablet copying, appeared as a faith for the common people. Kawarakyo also appeared, in which sutras were inscribed on both sides of flat roof tiles and buried in the ground for prayer. It has developed in a great variety of forms, such as illustrated sutras such as the Illustrated Sutra of Past and Present Cause and Effect, One-character One Buddha sutras in which one Buddha is drawn beside each character, One-character Lotus Stand Sutras in which characters are written on a lotus stand, Ipponkyo sutras in which one chapter of the sutra is revered independently, Nyohokyo sutras in which sutras are copied according to the prescribed rules, Senmen Sutras in which sutras are copied on the surface of a fan, and Shosokukyo sutras in which the news of the deceased is linked and copied on the back of the paper as a memorial for the deceased. Historically, the Lotus Sutra was the center of copying sutras, but recently the Heart Sutra has become popular as the representative.

[Yoshiaki Ishigami]

"The Sutras - Their Establishment and Development" by Hiromoto Mizuno (1980, Kosei Publishing) " "Japanese Art 156: Copying Sutras" edited by Ninkai Oyama (1979, Shibundo)

[Reference] | Decorative Sutra

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

仏教経典を書写すること、また書写された経典のこと。さらに広くは高僧の著作の書写までをいう。インドで、釈尊の残したことばを仏弟子たちが口承（暗誦(あんしょう)）によって伝えた。当時は筆録する風習がなかったことによるが、やがて文字によって写されるようになる。スリランカの伝承では、紀元前1世紀ごろに書写が始まったという。おそらく西暦紀元前後のころの、『道行般若経(どうぎょうはんにゃきょう)』『般舟三昧経(はんじゅざんまいきょう)』『法華経(ほけきょう)』などの初期大乗経典には、経典の書写は功徳(くどく)ありと強調されていて、そのころより行われたようである。写経の素材は木の葉や樹皮、布などが用いられ、とくにシュロに似たターラ樹の葉（貝多羅(ばいたら)）が使われ、貝葉経(ばいようきょう)とよんだ。インドではイスラム教のインド侵入（12世紀）以前は紙の伝統がなかったので、貝葉が写経の中心であったが、紙が使われるようになっても、形式は貝葉と同一方法で書写された。現存する最古の写経は、中央アジアのコータン（ホータン）で発見された、ガーンダーリー語『法句経(ほっくきょう)』で、樺(かば)皮に書かれ、1、2世紀ごろのものと推定されている。文字はカローシュティー文字である。その後、ブラフミー文字が増加し、やがては各地域の文字で書写された経典が現れた。ネパール文字で書写されたサンスクリット語の写本が12、13世紀を中心に多数残っている。パーリ語系のものはスリランカではシンハラ文字で、また、ビルマ文字、シャム文字、カンボジア文字など各国に多くの写本が残っている。サンスクリット語系は中央アジアに写本の断片が広く発見されており、集大成のものとしてはチベット、モンゴル、その他各国の文字で広く伝わっている。

［石上善應］

中国

中国で仏典が漢訳されたのは後漢(ごかん)時代の2世紀中ごろのようで、この時代に蔡倫(さいりん)が製紙法を発明し、文房具類の発達によって拍車がかけられ、仏典の書写に影響を与えた。また大乗仏典の書写による功徳が強調され、その時期が中国の仏教伝来と同時であったことにもより、写経はしだいに盛んとなる。六朝(りくちょう)時代には魏(ぎ)の道武帝が一切経(いっさいきょう)を書写させたと伝えており、集成仏典の写経が盛んになった。5世紀から、写経は1行17字という後世の写経の定型が成立した。隋(ずい)から唐代に至ると写経の隆盛期を迎え、写経の装飾もりっぱとなり、料紙を紺に染めた紺紙金字経などが生まれた。北宋(ほくそう)に入ると、内乱と印刷技術による版本の普及とによって、写経はやや減少した。古くは文字は隷書(れいしょ)体であったが、隋・唐にかけては楷書(かいしょ)体となり、巻子本(かんすぼん)の形式が定着した。版本の影響で折り本や冊子本も現れた。特色あるのは、廃仏などの迫害のため、何代もかけて岩に刻んだ石刻経が生まれたことである。また近年になって敦煌(とんこう)から発見された多数の写経は、仏教研究を大いに促進させたものとして貴重である。

［石上善應］

日本

日本では中国で散逸した貝葉の断片がわずかであるが発見され、明治期に海外に紹介されている。『日本書紀』には欽明(きんめい)天皇13年（552）条に百済(くだら)国王が経論を献じたとあり、それは写経に間違いない。聖徳太子の自筆といわれる『法華義疏(ほっけぎしょ)』は『法華経』の注釈書で、わが国の最古の紙本墨書である。672年（天武天皇1）に書生(しょしょう)を川原寺(かわらでら)に集めて一切経を書写させたと伝えているが、686年（朱鳥1、丙戌年）に書写された『金剛場陀羅尼経(こんごうじょうだらにきょう)』が現存する最古のものである。奈良時代には官立の写経所が設けられ、おびただしい写経がなされた。それには、写経の功徳が、祖先の追善や滅罪生善となり、鎮護国家の祈願に及ぶと考えられたからである。写経の発達は、紺紙金泥・銀泥、金銀泥や紫紙など豪華な経本を生じ、『平家納経』（国宝、厳島(いつくしま)神社蔵）のような装飾経が現れた。また死者の追福のため、多数の写経が行われ、木簡写経の一種である杮経(こけらきょう)が庶民の信仰として現れた。平瓦(ひらがわら)の両面に経文を刻み、地中に埋めて祈願する瓦経(かわらきょう)も現れた。『絵入過去現在因果経(えいりかこげんざいいんがきょう)』のような絵入り経、一字のわきに一仏を描く一字一仏経、蓮台(れんだい)の上に文字を記す一字蓮台経、経典の一章を独立して尊ぶ一品経(いっぽんきょう)、定められた法のとおりに写経する如法経(にょほうきょう)、扇面を料紙にして写経する扇面経、死者への供養のため、故人の消息をつないで、その紙の裏に写経する消息経(しょうそくきょう)など、実に多様な形で発展した。とくに歴史的には『法華経』が写経の中心であったが、最近は『般若心経(はんにゃしんぎょう)』がその代表として流行している。

［石上善應］

『水野弘元著『経典――その成立と展開』（1980・佼成出版社）』▽『大山仁快編『日本の美術156　写経』（1979・至文堂）』

[参照項目] | 装飾経

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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