Buddha - Shaka

Japanese: 釈迦 - しゃか

His birth and death dates are unknown. There are two theories: 463-383 BC and 565-485 BC (see below). Founder of Buddhism.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

Birthplace

He was born as the eldest son of the Sākiya (Śākya) king, Śuddhodana, of the small country of the Sākiya (Śākya) people, centered around Kapila Fort, located where southern Nepal meets the Indian plains. The name Shaka comes from the name of this tribe, and he is honorifically called Shakyamuni (muni means saint), which is translated into Chinese as Shakyamuni. His surname was Gotama, Gautama (transliterated as Kudon), and his given name was Siddhattha, or Siddhārtha (transliterated as Shiddaruta). In many cases, the Buddha or Butsu was a proper noun derived from the common noun meaning "enlightened person," and was corrupted to become "Hotoke" in Japan. In addition, he was called Tathāgata (the perfection of truth), Gina (the victorious one), and many other names, which are called myōgō (names).

While his 80-year life is considered certain, there are still three popular theories about the date of Buddha's death. In the south, the theory that he died in 654 BC is widespread due to a legend from around the 11th century, but academically, the two most popular theories are that he died around 485 BC or 383 BC. There is a difference of several years between scholars on both accounts. The 485 BC theory is based on a Sri Lankan history book and a chronicle that was introduced to China in 490 AD, while the 383 BC theory is based on two older treatises translated in China. Most foreign scholars, including those in Europe and the United States, take the former view, while the majority of Japanese scholars take the latter. The years that Shakyamuni lived also determine the dates of contemporary thinkers and earlier documents.

There is some speculation that the Sakyans were of Nepalese and therefore Mongolian origin, but there is no doubt that they were already within the realm of the dominant Indo-Aryan culture at that time.

In the 19th century, the existence of Shakyamuni was doubted due to the influence of the Enlightenment and other ideas, and some scholars tried to explain his biography from various astronomical theories and solar myths. In the midst of this, in 1898, a wax stone urn was excavated on the southern border of Nepal, and the inscription on its surface, which dates back to the 3rd century BC or earlier, was deciphered as "This is the vessel for the remains of the Buddha of the Shakya tribe, the World Honored One, donated by honored brothers, sisters, wives and children." This coincided with the description in the original sutras, and the ancient legend was confirmed. In addition, the Ashoka Stele discovered in 1896 confirmed that Lumbini was the birthplace of Shakyamuni, and other urns were later excavated, making the existence of Shakyamuni unshakable.

Based on today's philology, the framework of the oldest sutras is believed to have been created during the time of Shakyamuni's disciples. That is, immediately after Shakyamuni's death, his disciples gathered together and compiled Shakyamuni's words and deeds (called the First Council), which were then passed down by oral recitation and expanded. As time passed and the text spread to various regions, errors and embellishments were mixed in, and the text was expanded and changed. In particular, as the admiration, reverence, and faith in Shakyamuni grew, Shakyamuni became mystified and even fanciful, and miscellaneous elements were sometimes added, and his teachings became intermingled with the results of later developments. All of the early scriptures that have been handed down to date were finalized in some of the 20 or so sects that were formed after the Buddhist order split into the conservative Theravada and progressive Mahasabha around 100 to 200 years after the death of Shakyamuni, and further subdivisions were formed afterwards. It is said that it is extremely difficult to extract Shakyamuni's direct teachings (his Golden Mouth Sermons). It is believed that Shakyamuni spoke in Magadh, which was translated into Pali, which is close to Magadh, and into standard Sanskrit, and from the latter into other slang languages (such as Gandharan), many were translated into Chinese, some into Tibetan, and a small number of fragments of manuscripts in the ancient language have been found in various regions. Only a few forms of Magadh remain in Pali documents, and no complete texts in Magadh exist today. This early group of scriptures is called Āgama (transmitted), and in Chinese it is transliterated as "Agama". It contains four Agama sutras, and many single translations of only a part of them are available. The Pāli sources are called Nikāya (sections), and the four Nikāyas roughly correspond to the four Agama sutras, but the tendency today in academic circles to consider the verse sutras included in the fifth Nikāya (called the Minor Section) to be the oldest source is generally accepted.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

Becoming a monk and attaining enlightenment

The Agamas had very little interest in the biographies of Shakyamuni (Buddha biographies), but in time, using the fragmentary recollections of Shakyamuni and other sources as material, Indians began to create biographies of Buddha based on their uniquely excellent imagination, and the number of biographies increased. All the biographies of Buddha that are known today are based on these.

Shakyamuni's mother Maya (Maya-nin) died seven days after he was born, and he was raised by his mother's younger sister, his aunt. Although he was educated as a prince and lived a comfortable life, he tended to be introverted. According to the customs of the time, he married at the age of 16, and later had a son (Rāhulā, Ragora). However, in his wealthy and comfortable life, after his adolescence, Shakyamuni began to ponder the problem of suffering that lies at the root of life, and as he immersed himself in it, he began to seek the essence of suffering and seek liberation from it, which is called enlightenment.

At the age of 29, he finally abandoned everything, escaped from the castle, and traveled far south to become a monk. He visited two famous sages of the time (Ālāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta) on the banks of the Ganges River and studied their meditation. However, he was still not satisfied and went to Gaya, retreated to the nearby forests and devoted himself to ascetic practices appropriate for a monk. His ascetic practices were so intense that his body resembled a skeleton due to extreme fasting, but he still did not rest. He continued his ascetic practices for six years (seven years according to another theory), but his mind became hazy and he realized that he was straying from his original goal, so he abandoned them. He left the forest, purified himself in the river, was given rice porridge by a village girl to help him recover, and then sat under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, lost in deep contemplation.

Although he was tempted by demons along the way, Shakyamuni concentrated on meditation and finally attained great enlightenment. He attained enlightenment and became a Buddha, or "an enlightened person." After that, he basked in the joy of enlightenment for a while, and after a long hesitation, he decided to preach. His inner thoughts are depicted in dramatic expressions, such as the temptations of demons and witches and the earnest request of Brahma to preach.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

Sermon

The Buddha first preached his teachings to five monks who had once shared his ascetic practices at Migadaya (Deer Garden) in Sarnath, north of Benares (Varanasi). They were then enlightened and became Buddhist disciples (known as the First Turning of the Wheel of Dharma). This marked the beginning of the religious order known as the Sangha (Monastic Community). This marked the beginning of the Buddha's journey of teachings, in which he appealed widely to ordinary people at their request, answering their various questions with kindness. His travels covered an elliptical area of Central India of over 300 km, with Rajagriha in the east and Shravasti in the west as its axes. Apart from spending the summer monsoons at the Bamboo Grove Monastery in the former and the Jetavana Monastery in the latter, Shakyamuni spent most of his life traveling. During this time, the number of his disciples and followers gradually increased, and although the scriptures state that he had 1,250 disciples, the actual number appears to have exceeded that. However, it is difficult to say that Shakyamuni himself had any intention of preaching his own teachings or establishing a religious organization. Rather, it is clear from the descriptions in the scriptures that he simply traveled around to solve the suffering of the people, and responded to people's requests during his travels, rather than promoting a new religion.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

Death

After attaining enlightenment, Shakyamuni traveled around India in the scorching heat for 45 years, preaching his teachings. For the last 25 years, he was accompanied by his cousin Ananda, but he finally passed away under two Sāla trees on the outskirts of Kushinagar. He was 80 years old. The circumstances of his final journey are summarized in a sutra, which contains many testaments. The main ones are as follows. "I have no clenched fists, I have explained everything to you," "He who sees the Dharma sees me, and he who sees me sees the Dharma," "After my death, the Dharma and the precepts I have preached will be your teachers," "Make yourself a lamp (or island) and rely on yourself, not on others, but use the Dharma as your lamp and rely on the Dharma, and do not rely on others," "Those who work hard at the Dharma and the precepts will abandon the cycle of life and bring about the end of suffering," and his final words were, "All phenomena (all actions) are subject to destruction. Work hard without slacking." It was a truly peaceful passing, and there was no persecution or oppression in his life, as seen in the founders and saints of other religions. After his death, Shakyamuni was cremated by the local people, and his remains (called Buddha's relics) were distributed among the kings, enshrined in eight places, and stupas (towers) were built there.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

lesson

As mentioned above, it is difficult to determine Shakyamuni's direct teachings. It would be appropriate to look to Shakyamuni as the prototype or core of the various teachings of early Buddhism described below in (1) to (11). At the same time, Shakyamuni is said to have used everyday examples to teach the most appropriate teachings for each situation (known as Taiki sermons).

(1) Facing reality and accepting diversity leads to tolerance.

(2) To have a calm mind and seek to establish a subjective self, while discarding all ego-attachment and self-centeredness.

(3) Total equality. It rejected the caste system that was already in place at the time and respected only individual practice, not birth.

(4) They are solely focused on practice, do not compete over the merits of arguments, and in particular do not answer or participate in metaphysical questions (this is called apathy).

(5) Focus on universal law as much as possible.

(6) The Three Dharma Seals (All is suffering, Impermanence of all things, Non-existence of the self in all things. Later Nirvana - serenity - is added, and eventually all is suffering is eliminated).

(7) The Four Noble Truths of the Origin and Extinction of Suffering and the Eightfold Path (Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Lives, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration).

(8) The five aggregates (a classification of dharma: form, feeling, perception, volition, and consciousness).

(9) The Six Senses (a classification of the Laws, referring to the six organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind, and the six corresponding objects of form, sound, smell, taste, touch and law).

(10) Dependent Origination (Everything exists, arises and perishes in relation to others. The most refined term for this is the twelve linked causes).

(11) Nirvana (infinite peace) is the state of liberation and enlightenment that Shakyamuni attained, and his way of life is said to be the ideal state for Buddhists, the goal they aim for.

It is also important to remember that during the time when Shakyamuni lived, India was a time when free thinkers were emerging and the social foundation that supported them existed.

[Mitsunori Saegusa November 18, 2016]

"A New Biography of Shakyamuni" by Watanabe Teruhiro (1966, Daihorinkaku/Chikuma Gakugei Bunko)" ▽ "Gautama Buddha" (Nakamura Gen Selected Works 11, 1969, Shunjusha)" ▽ "Thoughts of Early Buddhism" by Saegusa Mitsunori (1978, Institute of Oriental Philosophy/Volumes 1, 2, and 3, Daisanbunmeisha/Regulus Bunko)" ▽ "The Buddhist Story of Shakyamuni's Return - A Simple Small Dictionary of Buddhism" by Harada Mitsuo (1991, Tomei-sha)" ▽ "The Words of Shakyamuni" by Suganuma Akira, New Edition (1994, Yuzankaku Publishing)" ▽ "An Easy-to-Understand Buddha - The 80-Year Life of Shakyamuni" by Matsubara Tetsuaki (2001, Chikuma Shuhansha)" ▽ "Shakyamuni and His Ten Disciples" by Nakamura Shinya (2003, Kawade Shobo Shinsha)" ▽ "Buddha and the Ten Great Disciples" by Nishimura Kimiaki (2004, Shinchosha) " "Buddha: The Fiction and Truth of the Traditional Image of Shakyamuni" by Miyamoto Keiichi (Kobunsha Bunko)" "Hermann Oldenberg Buddha, his Life, his Life, his Family (1961, München)"

The four sacred places of Buddha
©Shogakukan ">

The four sacred places of Buddha

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

生没年不詳。紀元前463―前383年説と、前565―前485年説がある（後述参照）。仏教の創始者。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

出身

ネパール南部がインド大平原に連なるあたりに位置したカピラ城を中心に、サーキヤSākiya, Śākya人の小国があり、その国王の浄飯王(じょうばんのう)Śuddhodanaの長子として、生まれた。釈迦の呼称はこの種族名に由来し、尊称して釈迦牟尼(むに)（ムニmuniは聖者）とよばれ、釈尊と漢訳する。姓はゴータマGotama, Gautama（瞿曇(くどん)と音写）、名はシッダッタSiddhattha、シッダールタSiddhārtha（悉達多(しっだるた)と音写）という。多くは、覚者（悟った人）を表す普通名詞を固有名詞化して、仏陀（ブッダBuddha）または仏とよばれ、これが転訛(てんか)して日本では「ほとけ」となる。さらに如来(にょらい)（タターガタTathāgata、真理の完成者）や勝者(しょうじゃ)（ジナGina）その他、多数の名でよばれ、これを名号(みょうごう)と称する。

　80年の生涯は確実とされる一方、没年に関しては仏滅年代論が現在も盛んであり、次の3種がある。南方には11世紀ごろからの伝説により前654年仏滅説が普及しているが、学問的には、前485年ごろと前383年ごろの2説が有力である。ともに学者により数年の差はある。前485年説はスリランカの史書によるものと、後490年に中国に伝来した年代記によるものとあり、前383年説はより古く中国で訳された二つの論書などに基づいている。おおむね欧米を含む外国の学者は前者を、日本の学者の大半は後者をとる。なお釈迦の生存年によって、同時代の思想家およびそれ以前の諸文献の年代がほぼ決定される。

　サーキヤ人は、あるいはネパール系、したがってモンゴル系人種かとの推測もあるが、当時すでに圧倒的なインド・アーリア文化の領域内にあったことは、疑う余地がない。

　19世紀には啓蒙(けいもう)思想などの影響から釈迦の実在が疑われ、天文学の諸説や太陽神話から、釈迦の伝記を説明する学者もいた。そのさなかの1898年に、ネパールの南境で一つの蝋石壺(ろうせきつぼ)が発掘され、その表面に刻まれた前3世紀以前の文は、「これは釈迦族の仏、世尊の遺骨の器で、名誉ある兄弟姉妹妻子たちの（奉納）」と解読された。これは原始経典の記載と一致し、古い伝承がここに確証された。そのほか、1896年に発見されたアショカ王碑文は釈迦の誕生地ルンビニーを裏づけ、のちにほかの骨壺の発掘もあり、釈迦の実在は不動となった。

　今日の文献学を総合すると、最古の経典の骨格は、釈迦の孫弟子のころの成立とされる。すなわち釈迦入滅の直後に仏弟子が集まり、釈迦の言行を編集（これを第一結集(けつじゅう)という）して、それが口誦(くじゅ)により伝承され、また拡大する。時代の経過と諸地方への伝播(でんぱ)の間に、誤りや粉飾が混入し、また増広や変更などが加わる。とくに釈迦への思慕・尊崇・信仰が強まって、釈迦を神秘化しさらに空想化し、ときに雑多な要素が付加され、また教説も後の発展成果と入り交じる。現在伝わる初期経典はすべて、釈迦没後100年ないし200年ごろに教団が保守派の上座(じょうざ)部と進歩派の大衆(だいしゅ)部とに分裂し、さらにその後の細分裂の末に成立した20余の部派のうち、いくつかの部派において確定したものであり、釈迦の直接の教え（金口(こんく)の説法）を取り出すことは至難とされる。釈迦はマガダ語で語ったと推定され、それがマガダ語に近いパーリ語と、標準語のサンスクリット語とに置き換えられ、後者から他の俗語（たとえばガンダーラ語など）に、また多くが漢訳され、一部はチベット語訳されたほか、少数ながら古語の写本の断片が諸地域で発見されている。マガダ語はパーリ語文献に少数その語形を残すのみで、マガダ語のまとまったテクストは現存しない。この初期経典群はアーガマĀgama（伝来）とよばれ、漢訳は「阿含(あごん)」と音写する。それには四つの阿含経があり、また一部のみの単訳も多い。パーリ語資料はニカーヤNikāya（部）と名づけ、四つのニカーヤが四阿含経とほぼ対応するが、第五のニカーヤ（小部と称する）に含まれる韻文経典こそ最古の資料とみなす傾向が、今日の学界では定説化している。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

出家と成道

アーガマには釈迦の伝記（仏伝）への関心はきわめて薄く、やがて、そのなかの断片的な釈迦の回想などを資料としつつ、インド人独自の優れた想像性のもとで仏伝が創作され、その種類も増える。今日伝わる仏伝はすべてそれらに基づく。

　釈迦は生後7日に母のマーヤーMāyā（摩耶夫人(まやぶにん)）に死に別れ、以後は亡母の妹すなわち叔母に育てられた。王子としての教養を積み生活は恵まれていたものの内向しがちであった。当時の風習により16歳で結婚し、のち男子（ラーフラRāhulā、羅睺羅(らごら)）をもうける。しかし富裕と安逸な日常のうちに、青年期を過ぎた釈迦は、人生の根源に潜む苦の問題に思いを深め、それに沈潜するなかで、苦の本質の追究とその解放である解脱(げだつ)を目ざすようになる。

　29歳に達し、その徹底的な解決を求め、ついにいっさいを放棄して、城を脱出し、遠くに南下して出家する。ガンジス川辺に当時の有名な仙人二人（アーラーラ・カーラーマĀlāra Kālāmaとウッダカ・ラーマプッタUddaka Rāmaputta）を相次いで訪ねて、その禅定(ぜんじょう)を学ぶ。しかしなお意を満たしえず、やがてガヤーの地に赴き、付近の山林にこもって出家者にふさわしい苦行に専念する。その苦行は激烈を極め、極度の断食のために身体は骸骨(がいこつ)に似ても、なおそれを休まなかった。苦行は6年（別説7年）間続くが、かえって精神はもうろうとなり、初志から遠ざかってしまうことを自覚して、それを放棄する。山林を出て川で身を浄(きよ)め、村の少女から乳粥(ちちがゆ)を受けて体力の回復を待ち、ブッダガヤの菩提樹(ぼだいじゅ)の下に座って、ひたすら思索にふけった。

　途中に悪魔の誘惑などもあったが、釈迦はただいちずに冥想(めいそう)に集注し、ついに大いなる悟りが開けて、ここに成道(じょうどう)は完成し、ブッダすなわち「悟った人（覚者）」となった。その後しばらく悟りの醍醐味(だいごみ)に浸り、長いためらいののちに、説法を決意する。その内心の動きは、悪魔や魔女の誘惑や梵天(ぼんてん)の切なる説法要請（勧請(かんじょう)）という戯曲的表現で示されている。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

説法

釈迦は、ベナレス（ワーラーナシ）北方のサールナートにあるミガダーヤ（鹿野苑(ろくやおん)）に、かつて苦行をともにした五人の出家者を訪ねて、最初にその教えを説いた。そして彼らは教化されて仏弟子となる（初転法輪(しょてんぼうりん)という）。サンガ（僧伽(そうぎゃ)）とよばれる教団はここに始まる。これを契機に、釈迦は請われるままに一般の人々にも広く呼びかけ、彼らのさまざまな問いに懇切に答えて、説法教化の旅が続けられた。その範囲は、東の王舎(おうしゃ)城と西の舎衛(しゃえ)城あたりを軸とする300キロメートル以上のほぼ楕円(だえん)形の中インド一帯に及ぶ。前者の竹林精舎(ちくりんしょうじゃ)と後者の祇園(ぎおん)精舎とに、夏のモンスーン期を過ごすほかは、生涯はほぼ遊行(ゆぎょう)の旅にあった。その間に仏弟子も信者もしだいに増加し、経典では仏弟子1250人とするものの、実数はそれを超えたらしい。ただし釈迦自身にとくに自説の伝道や教団設立の意図があったとは認めがたく、むしろ民衆の苦の解決にただ歩き回り、新宗教を喧伝(けんでん)するのではなく、巡歴の間に人々の求めに応じたさまが、諸経典の記述から明らかに知られうる。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

入滅

釈迦は酷熱のインド各地に成道以後の45年間も教えを説いて回った。その後半の25年間はいとこにあたるアーナンダĀnanda（阿難(あなん)）が随伴したが、ついにクシナガラの郊外の2本のサーラ樹（沙羅双樹(さらそうじゅ)）の下で入滅する。ときに80歳。その最後の旅における情況は一つの経にまとめられ、そのなかに数々の遺言が残されている。そのおもなものを記す。「わたしには握りこぶしはない、すべてをことごとく説き示した」「法を見るものはわたしを見る。わたしを見るものは法を見る」「わたしの死後は、わたしの説いた法と戒とが汝(なんじ)たちの師となる」「自己を灯明（または島）とし自己をよりどころとして、他人をよりどころとせず、法を灯明とし法をよりどころとして、他のものをよりどころとするなかれ」「法と戒とに精励するものは、生の流転(るてん)を捨てて苦の終滅をもたらすであろう」といい、そして「諸現象（諸行(しょぎょう)）は滅び行くものである。怠ることなく精進せよ」が最後のことばとなった。まことに静かな入滅であり、その一生には、他の諸宗教の創始者や聖者などにみられるような迫害や弾圧はまったくない。入滅後、釈迦は付近の民衆により火葬され、その遺骨（仏舎利(ぶっしゃり)という）は諸王たちに分配され、8か所に祀(まつ)られ、ストゥーパ（塔）が建てられた。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

教え

前述のとおり、釈迦の直接の説は確定しがたい。以下(1)～(11)に記す原始仏教の教説の諸項目の原型ないし核を、釈迦に求めるのがふさわしいであろう。同時にまた釈迦は卑近なたとえなどで、そのつど臨機応変のもっとも適した教えを説いた（対機(たいき)説法という）とされている。

(1)現実の直視、それによる多様性の承認、それは寛容につながる。

(2)心を平静にし、主体的な自己の確立を求める。しかし我執(がしゅう)と自己中心とはすべて捨てる。

(3)いっさいの平等。当時すでに有力なカースト制度を否認し、生まれではなくて、個人の実践のみを尊ぶ。

(4)ひたすら実践を目ざし、議論の優劣を争わず、とくに形而上(けいじじょう)学的な問いに答えず加わらない（無記とよぶ）。

(5)可能な限り普遍的な法を中心とする。

(6)三法印(さんぼういん)（一切皆苦(いっさいかいく)、諸行無常(しょぎょうむじょう)、諸法無我(しょほうむが)。のち涅槃寂静(ねはんじゃくじょう)を加え、やがて一切皆苦を除く）。

(7)苦集(くじゅう)滅道の四諦(したい)と八正道(はっしょうどう)（正見・正思・正語・正業・正命(しょうみょう)・正精進・正念・正定(じょう)）。

(8)五蘊(ごうん)（法の分類で、色(しき)・受・想・行(ぎょう)・識の五つの集まり）。

(9)六入（法の分類で、眼(げん)・耳(に)・鼻(び)・舌(ぜつ)・身(しん)・意(い)の六つの器官、それに対応して色(しき)・声(しょう)・香(こう)・味(み)・触(そく)・法の六つの対象）。

(10)縁起(えんぎ)（すべては他との関係においてあり成立し生じ滅する。そのもっとも整備された語が十二因縁(いんねん)）。

(11)ニルバーナnirvāa（涅槃、限りない安らぎ）こそが解脱・悟りの境地であり、釈迦はそれに到達し、その生き方は仏教徒の理想のあり方、目ざす彼岸(ひがん)とされる。

　なお釈迦の生きた時代は、インドで自由思想家が輩出し、またそれを支える社会的地盤のあったことを銘記する要があろう。

［三枝充悳　2016年11月18日］

『渡辺照宏著『新釈尊伝』（1966・大法輪閣／ちくま学芸文庫）』▽『『ゴータマ・ブッダ』（『中村元選集11』1969・春秋社）』▽『三枝充悳著『初期仏教の思想』（1978・東洋哲学研究所／上中下・第三文明社・レグルス文庫）』▽『原田三夫著『釈迦回帰の仏教物語――やさしい仏教小事典』（1991・東明社）』▽『菅沼晃著『釈迦のことば』新装版（1994・雄山閣出版）』▽『松原哲明著『よくわかるブッダ――釈迦80年の生涯』（2001・チクマ秀版社）』▽『中村晋也著『釈迦と十人の弟子たち』（2003・河出書房新社）』▽『西村公朝著『釈迦と十大弟子』（2004・新潮社）』▽『宮元啓一著『ブッダ――伝統的釈迦像の虚構と真実』（光文社文庫）』▽『Hermann OldenbergBuddha, sein Leben, seine Lehre, seine Gemeinde (1961, München)』