Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Japanese: 五代十国 - ごだいじっこく

This refers to the countries and eras that rose and fell in the 50 years between 907 and 960 in China. Five dynasties, Later Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou, rose and fell in succession in the Central Plains of the Yellow River basin, and outside the Central Plains there were more than ten separate countries, including Former Shu, Later Shu, Wu, Southern Tang, Wuyue, Jingnan (Nanping), Min, Chu, Qi, Yan, Southern Han, and Northern Han. The five dynasties of the Central Plains are called the Five Dynasties, and the other countries are called the Ten Kingdoms, and together they are known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms. The emperors of the Five Dynasties maintained their status as the legitimate successors of the Tang Dynasty, but the rulers of the Ten Kingdoms also considered themselves equals to the emperors of the Five Dynasties. This was because they established their governments through their own strength as warriors. The emperors and rulers of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms rose from bandits, soldiers, and local lords during the conflicts at the end of the Tang Dynasty, such as the Huang Chao Rebellion (875-884), rose to prominence through military merit, and became military governors, after which they established their status.

[Masanori Hatachi]

Emperor's Origin

Among the emperors of the Five Dynasties, the late Liang Emperor Zhu Quanzhong was the son of a fallen Confucian scholar, who became famous as a subordinate of the Huang Chao army before surrendering to the Tang dynasty and becoming a military governor. The late Tang Emperor Li Keyong, the late Jin Emperor Shi Jingtang, and the late Han Emperor Liu Zhiyuan were all soldiers of the Shaduo Turk tribe who gained the emperor's trust through their military achievements and became military governors. Among the rulers of the Ten Kingdoms, Wang Jian of Former Shu went from being a military governor in charge of enforcing military discipline in the Zhongwu Army to a divine strategy forbidden army officer in the Tang dynasty's imperial guard, and was promoted to a military governor in the Yongping Army. Ma Yin of Chu was a woodworker who became a bandit, and was supported by his subordinates to become a military governor in the Wu'an Army. Gao Ji Xing of Jingnan was a servant of the wealthy merchant Li Qilang when he was discovered by Zhu Quanzhong and served as his aide, eventually becoming the governor of Jingnan. Liu Zhi (Liu Gen) of the Southern Han Dynasty was a descendant of a great chieftain of the Barbarians, and succeeded the governor of the Jingnan Navy from Guangzhou. Wang Chao of Min was the magistrate of Gusi County in Guangzhou, but joined the rebel forces of Huang Chao with his brother Wang Shenzhi, and was appointed governor of the Weiwu Army from Quanzhou. Qian Liu of Wu Yue rose from a knight in Shijing Township, Lin'an County, Hangzhou, to become the deputy commander of the village self-defense corps, and then from the commander of the Hangzhou Eight Capitals, the self-defense corps of Hangzhou's eight counties, to the position of naval governor. Yang Xingmi of Wu was an orphan, but he became the commander of the self-defense corps of Luzhou and Shouzhou, and was promoted from governor of Luzhou to governor of Huainan. Xu Wen of Southern Tang was a former retainer of Yang Xingmi of Wu, and after Yang Xingmi's death, he took control of the country and established the Southern Tang Dynasty under his adopted son Xu Zhiguo. As described above, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period was an era of warrior rule, in which powerful military governors competed for supremacy and used military forces to form a ruling system within the domains of prefectures and counties, down to the very last villages and towns. This period showed signs of political division and social turmoil, but a new momentum was being fostered in politics, culture, and other areas.

[Masanori Hatachi]

Politics and Economy

The countries of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era implemented policies such as enriching the country and strengthening the military and encouraging industry in order to maintain political power and ensure stability in their territories. The revival of industry in Sichuan, centered on silk weaving in Former Shu and Later Shu, trade with the Southwestern Barbarians, promotion of tea in the Chu state to make it a specialty product and intermediate trade of imported goods from the South China Sea, and the development of marine resources and maritime trade in coastal countries such as Fujian, Wuyue, Wu, Southern Tang, and Nanhai all contributed greatly to the strengthening of each country's national power. The promotion of industry and trade in these countries stimulated traffic between countries, maintaining and stabilizing friendly relations, and merchants were also active.

In politics, military affairs and finances were emphasized, and new government positions such as Privy Councilor and Sansi Shi were created to that end. In the military, powerful elite military corps were organized at the center, and the expansion and improvement of the Imperial Guard by the Five Dynasties became the basis for the Imperial Guard of the Song Dynasty. In administrative organizations, too, measures were taken that were effective in dealing with the current situation based on regional characteristics, and a new administrative unit called the "gun" came into being.

[Masanori Hatachi]

Culture and Lifestyle

In terms of culture, technological developments in papermaking and printing led to the widespread publication of books such as Buddhist scriptures, Buddhist scriptures, and poetry, and colloquial verse incorporating folk songs was also created and enjoyed by the general public. Zhao Chongzuo's "Hua Jiang Shu" was the first collection of poems. In painting, bird-and-flower paintings, as typified by Huang Quan of Shu and Xu Xi of the Southern Tang, and landscape paintings by Jing Hao of the Later Liang Dynasty and Dong Yuan of the Southern Tang Dynasty, developed. In the Southern Tang Dynasty, where teaching temples were established, singing, dancing, and the biwa became popular, and the Rain Skirt and Feather Clothing Song of Tang Xuanzong was revived, becoming the forerunner of Song and Yuan dynasty opera. Furthermore, according to remains and artifacts such as the Tomb of King Jian of Former Shu and the Two Tombs of Southern Tang, cultural characteristics such as painting, sculpture, ceramics, clothing, and customs clearly show transitional elements from the Tang to the Song dynasty. As described above, the culture of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms narrowed the gap between the central and local areas, and we can see the development of popular culture.

However, under the warrior government, the lives of the common people were harsh. In addition to the tax burdens of the two taxes levied based on the size of rice fields and the additional tax, the common people also suffered from illegal private taxation by the warriors and high-interest loans by merchants and wealthy farmers. The tax burden was particularly heavy. The tax burden included cowhide money, which was the price of cowhide for weapons, agricultural equipment money, which was the price for the liberalization of the manufacture and sale of iron tools, koji money (alcohol money) and salt money, which were the price for the liberalization of sake and salt, and bridge and road money for bridge maintenance. In addition, new house and land taxes were levied on the residents of developing cities. The common people at that time lived well enduring the hardships of the warriors' extortion and punishment.

[Masanori Hatachi]

"The History of China 5: The Five Dynasties and the Song Dynasty" by Yoshiyuki Shuto and Bin Nakajima (Kodansha, 1974)

The territory of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
©Shogakukan ">

The territory of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Table of the Rise and Fall of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
©Shogakukan ">

Table of the Rise and Fall of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Qinling perspective view
©Masazumi Fujita ">

Qinling perspective view

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国で、907年から960年に至る約50年間に興亡した国、およびその時代をいう。黄河流域の中原(ちゅうげん)の地に後梁(こうりょう)、後唐(こうとう)、後晋(こうしん)、後漢(こうかん)、後周(こうしゅう)の5王朝が相次いで興亡し、中原の地以外には前蜀(ぜんしょく)、後蜀(こうしょく)、呉(ご)、南唐、呉越(ごえつ)、荊南(けいなん)（南平）、閩(びん)、楚(そ)、岐(き)、燕(えん)、南漢、北漢など10余国が分立していた。中原の5王朝を五代といい、他の諸国を十国と称し、両者を五代十国とよんでいる。五代の皇帝は唐王朝の正統な後継者の地位を保っていたが、十国の君主も五代の皇帝と対等であるという意識をもっていた。それは、彼らが武人として実力で政権を樹立したことによっていた。五代十国の皇帝や君主は、黄巣(こうそう)の乱（875～884）をはじめとする唐末の争乱において群盗、兵士、土豪などから身をおこし、武功によって立身し、節度使となったのち、その地位を確立したものである。

［畑地正憲］

皇帝の出自

五代の皇帝の場合、後梁の太祖朱全忠は没落儒者の子であり、黄巣の部将として驍名(ぎょうめい)を馳(は)せたのち唐朝に投降して節度使となり、後唐の太祖李克用(りこくよう)、後晋の高祖石敬瑭(せきけいとう)、後漢の高祖劉知遠(りゅうちえん)らはいずれも沙陀突厥(さだとっけつ)族出身の軍兵であり、戦功によって皇帝の信任を得て節度使となったものである。十国の君主の場合、前蜀の王建は忠武軍節度使の軍規取締り将校から唐朝の皇帝親衛軍の神策禁軍将校となり、永平軍節度使へと昇進した。楚の馬殷(ばいん)は木工職人から流賊となり、部下に擁立されて武安軍節度使となった。荊南の高季興(こうきこう)は富商李七郎の僕僮(ぼくどう)（子供の召使い）であったところを朱全忠にみいだされて側近に仕え、荊南節度使へ累進した。南漢の劉陟(りゅうちょく)（劉(りゅうげん)）は蛮(ばんりょう)の巨酋(きょしゅう)の子孫であり、広州に拠(よ)って静海軍節度使を継承した。閩の王潮は光州固始県の県令であったが、弟王審知(おうしんち)と黄巣の乱兵に身を投じ、泉州に拠って威武軍節度使に任用された。呉越の銭鏐(せんりゅう)は杭州(こうしゅう)臨安県石鏡郷の侠客(きょうかく)より郷村自衛団の副将となり、杭州八県の自衛団である杭州八都の部隊長から累進して鎮海軍節度使となった。呉の楊(よう)行密は孤児であったが、盧州(ろしゅう)と寿州の自衛団の隊長となり、盧州刺史(しし)から淮南(わいなん)節度使へ昇進した。南唐の徐温は呉の楊行密の元従(げんじゅう)（譜代の家来）として活躍し、楊行密の死後に実権を握り、養子徐知誥(じょちこう)の代に南唐を樹立したものである。以上のように、五代十国の時代は実力ある武人出身の節度使が群雄割拠し、領国内の州県から郷村末端に及ぶまで武人を用いて支配体制を形成しており、武人政治の時代であったのである。この時代は政治的分立、社会的混乱の様相を呈してはいたが、政治や文化などの面で新しい気運が醸成されていた。

［畑地正憲］

政治・経済

五代十国の諸国は、政治権力の維持および領国の安定を確立するため、富国強兵、殖産興業などの政策を実践していた。前蜀および後蜀の絹織物を中心とした四川(しせん)の産業復興や西南蛮夷(ばんい)との貿易、楚国の茶業振興による特産化や南海舶載品の仲継貿易、閩、呉越、呉、南唐、南海など臨海諸国の海産資源の開発と海上貿易などは、諸国の国力充実に大きく寄与していた。このような諸国の産業および貿易の振興は、諸国間における交通を活発にし、修好関係の維持と安定をもたらすこととなり、また商人の活躍も盛んであった。

　政治面においては軍事と財政とが重視され、そのために枢密使や三司使などの新しい官職が創置された。軍事においては中央に強力な精兵軍団が編成され、とくに五代王朝による禁軍の拡充、整備は宋(そう)代の禁軍の母体となった。また行政組織にも、地域性に立脚し、現状対応に有効な方策がとられ、「軍」とよばれる新しい行政単位がおこってきたのである。

［畑地正憲］

文化・生活

文化面においては、製紙や印刷などの技術的発達によって経書、仏典、詩文などの書籍の刊行が盛んであり、民間俗謡を取り入れた口語体の韻文もつくられ民間で愛好された。趙崇祚(ちょうすうそ)の『花間集』は最初の詞集である。絵画では蜀の黄筌(こうせん)や南唐の徐煕(じょき)に代表される花鳥画、後梁の荊浩(けいこう)や南唐の董源(とうげん)らの山水画が発達した。教坊を設置した南唐では歌舞琵琶(びわ)が普及し、唐の玄宗の霓裳羽衣曲(げいしょうういのきょく)が復興されて宋・元戯曲の先駆となった。また前蜀王建墓や南唐二陵などの遺跡、遺物によると、絵画、彫塑(ちょうそ)、窯業、服飾、習慣などの文化的特色が唐から宋への過渡的要素を明示している。以上のように五代十国の文化には、中央と地方との較差が縮まり、庶民文化の発達をみることができる。

　ところで、武人政治のもとでの庶民の生活は過酷なものであった。当時の民衆は、田畝(でんぽ)を基準に課税された両税や、付加税である沿徴などの税負担以外にも、武人の不法な私的課税や商人、富農らの高利貸付に苦しんでいた。とくに沿徴は過重な税負担であった。沿徴には、武具用牛皮の代価にあたる牛皮銭、鉄器具の製造・販売の自由化の代償である農器銭、酒と塩の自由化の代償である麹(きく)銭（榷酒(かくしゅ)銭）や塩銭、橋梁(きょうりょう)保全のための橋道銭などがあった。また発展していた都市の住民に対しても屋税や地税が新たに課税された。当時の民衆は、武人による苛斂誅求(かれんちゅうきゅう)の苦しみによく耐えて生活していたのである。

［畑地正憲］

『周藤吉之・中嶋敏著『中国の歴史5　五代・宋』（1974・講談社）』

五代十国の領域

五代十国興亡表

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欽陵透視図

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