Kokudaka system

Japanese: 石高制 - こくだかせい
Kokudaka system

An economic and political system based on the official production amount of fields, houses, etc., i.e. rice yield. The rice yield system overcame the manorial relationships and was the basis of the early modern shogunate and feudal domain system. Its establishment was based on the determination and understanding of rice yields through the Taiko land survey.

[Mitsuru Miyagawa]

Rice yield

Until the end of the Muromachi period, rice tax (nenshu), kandaka, makidaka, karidaka, and other figures that were remnants of the manorial relationships were used to grasp and indicate the economic significance of land, but Toyotomi Hideyoshi abolished these and used kokudaka, determined by land surveys that began in 1582 (Tensho 10), as the basis for organizing and grasping land relationships. This kokudaka was not the rice tax that had been used up until then as nenshu, but was determined by determining kokumori, which was calculated from the standard average production yield calculated based on tsubogari and other conditions, according to the upper, middle, or lower grade of fields and houses, and was determined for each plot based on that kokumori. In determining the amount of stone mounds, in addition to the tsubo-kari method, the state of commerce, transportation, handicrafts, and specialty products in the area, as well as economic and political considerations such as the social wealth of the area and its political and military importance were often taken into account. Therefore, the kokudaka determined based on this type of kokudaka cannot be considered an actual production amount, but rather an official production amount. Some people believe that kokudaka was determined arbitrarily from above, or that it was an estimated (projected) production amount, but neither of these views are accurate. As mentioned above, it is appropriate to consider kokudaka as an official production amount that takes into account the estimated production amount based on the tsubo-kari method, the social wealth, and political judgment. There were many cases where kokudaka and actual production amount differed, and the discrepancy tended to increase as the years went by. However, kokudaka was not changed until the next land survey. The political and economic land relationship organized based on kokudaka of this nature is the kokudaka system.

[Mitsuru Miyagawa]

The significance of the rice yield system

It is said that the reason Hideyoshi abolished the traditional rice tax and kanko tax, adopted kokudaka as the official production amount, and worked to establish the kokudaka system was because many samurai who served far away from their home territories had already tended to be provided with stored rice rather than land. However, this is a superficial and inconsequential view. There was another, more fundamental reason. The kokudaka system was more direct and appropriate for grasping and expressing the economic significance of the fields and houses of the peasant class, compared to the traditional rice tax, kanko tax, and makidaka tax, which were indirect and somewhat rough. Therefore, in the case of the indirect and rough rice tax and kanko tax systems, it was difficult to prevent intermediate exploitation by local lords and powerful peasants, but the direct and appropriate kokudaka system made it easier to prevent this, and combined with the land survey policy of only one naukenin per land, it was possible to separate soldiers and peasants. In other words, under the rice yield system, the landowner took the share of the rice yield determined by land surveys, and the rest went to the feudal lord, making it difficult for local lords and powerful farmers to exploit the land, and they were unable to become samurai or feudal lords, so they continued to live in the villages as farmers. Thus, the tendency for farmers to become samurai or to overthrow the ruling class disappeared, and the separation of soldiers and farmers brought about peace in the country. The rice yield system played an extremely important role as the foundation for the complete separation of soldiers and farmers.

The kokudaka system also formed the basis or standard of feudal relations of domination, and had the function of supporting and regulating these relations. First, from the perspective of the ruled peasants, that is, the people of the domain, kokudaka was the standard for determining the amount of taxes and duties to be paid to the lord, and an increase in kokudaka meant an increase in the burden. Therefore, they left the kokudaka they owned unchanged and tried to increase the actual production volume by improving agricultural techniques, creating hidden fields, and other methods. As a result, the gap between kokudaka and actual production volume increased as the years went on. Secondly, from the perspective of the ruling lords, the kokudaka owned by the people of the domain was the basis for collecting taxes and duties and the basis for controlling the people of the domain, so they tried to increase it as much as possible. The kokudaka that was actually subject to taxation within the domain was the total kokudaka owned by the people of the domain, and was called uchidaka. This is the opposite of omotedaka, which was the nominal kokudaka given by the shogunate. Each feudal lord worked hard to increase their uchidaka by developing new fields, collecting land through land surveys, uncovering hidden fields, improving agricultural techniques, etc., so that the uchidaka often exceeded the omote-daka, a trend that became stronger as the years went on. An increase in uchidaka meant an increase in the lord's income, but on the other hand, it sometimes meant a decrease in the income of the people of the domain.

The kokudaka system also regulated the status of samurai and peasants under the feudal domain system, and played a role in determining the rank of their families. In other words, the status of honbyakusho, mudaka, mizunomi, etc. was determined by the amount of kokudaka a peasant possessed. Furthermore, samurai, from daimyo to low-ranking foot soldiers, were ranked according to the size of the nominal land value of the land they were granted, with those with more than 10,000 koku being daimyo and those with less than 10,000 koku being hatamoto, and their family status was determined by this. At the same time, the nominal land value was a standard for military service and other burdens for them.

As described above, the rice yield system was significant in that it regulated the separation of soldiers and farmers, and also as a standard for feudal relations of dominance and status. Thus, after the Taiko survey of land, the rice yield system continued to function as the basis of the shogunate-han system and continued to exist until the land-tax reform of 1873 (Meiji 6).

[Mitsuru Miyagawa]

[Reference] | Taiko Land Survey

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

田畑・屋敷などの公定生産高=石高を基礎として組織された経済的・政治的制度。石高制は荘園(しょうえん)制的諸関係を克服するとともに、近世幕藩体制の基礎をなす制度である。その成立は、太閤(たいこう)検地によって石高が確定され、把握されたことに基づく。

[宮川 満]

石高

室町末期までは土地の経済的意義を把握し表示するのに、荘園制的諸関係の残存としての米高(年貢高)や貫高(かんだか)、蒔高(まきだか)、刈高(かりだか)などが用いられていたが、豊臣(とよとみ)秀吉はこれらを廃して、1582年(天正10)から始めた検地により確定した石高をもって、土地関係を整理し把握する基礎とした。この石高は、それまでの年貢高としての米高ではなく、検地の実施に際し、坪刈(つぼがり)やその他の条件に基づいて求めた標準平均生産高から算定される石盛(こくもり)を、田畑・屋敷の上・中・下の等級に応じて決定し、その石盛を基準にして一筆ごとに確定されたものである。この石盛の決定には、坪刈のほか、付近の商業・交通・手工業・特産物の情況など、総じてその地域の社会的富の大小や、政治的・軍事的に重要か否か、などの経済的・政治的判断が加えられることも多かった。したがって、このような性格の石盛を基礎として確定される石高は、現実の生産高とはいえず、むしろ公定の生産高であるといえよう。なかには、石高は上から恣意(しい)的に決定されたものとする見解や、見積り(見込み)生産高とする説もあるが、いずれも的確ではない。やはり、石高は、前述のように坪刈による見積り生産高に社会的富の大小を考え合わせ、かつ政治的判断を加えた、公定の生産高とみるのが適切である。なお、石高と現実の生産高とは食い違う場合も多く、その食い違いは年代の下るほど多くなる傾向にあった。しかし、それでも石高は次の検地まで変更されることがなかった。このような性格の石高を基礎にして組織された政治的・経済的な土地関係が石高制である。

[宮川 満]

石高制の意義

秀吉が従来の米高や貫高などを廃して、公定生産高としての石高を採用し、石高制の成立に努めた理由は、すでに以前から本領を遠く離れて出仕する武士の多くが、土地よりも、むしろ蔵米(くらまい)を支給される傾向にあったからともいわれている。しかし、これは皮相な取るに足らない見解である。それよりも、より根本的な理由がほかにあった。それは、農民層の田畑・屋敷のもつ経済的意義を把握し、表示するには、従来の米高、貫高、蒔高などが間接的であり、やや大ざっぱなのに比べて、石高制のほうがより直接的、より適切だった点である。そのため、間接的で大ざっぱな米高制、貫高制などの場合には、土豪や有力農民による中間搾取を抑えがたいが、直接的で適切な石高制の場合は、それを抑えやすく、かつ一地に1名請人(なうけにん)とする検地方針と相まって、兵農を分離することが可能であった。すなわち、石高制では、検地によって確定された石高のうち、作徳分(さくとくぶん)は名請人がとり、残りはすべて領主が収取したから、土豪や有力農民の中間搾取はむずかしくなり、彼らは武士化・領主化が不可能になって、農民として在村し続けた。こうして農民の武士化の傾向や下剋上(げこくじょう)の傾向もなくなり、兵農が分離して天下の平静が招来したのである。石高制が、このように兵農分離を貫徹させる基礎として果たした役割はきわめて大きい。

 石高制は、また封建的支配関係の基準ないし基礎をなすもので、その関係を支え規制する機能を有していた。まず支配される農民すなわち領民の側からみると、彼らにとって石高は、領主へ貢納する年貢・課役の決定基準であり、石高の増加は負担の増加を意味する。したがって彼らは、保有する石高をそのままにしておいて、農業技術の改良や隠田(おんでん)その他により、実質的な現実の生産高の増加を図った。そのため、石高と現実の生産高のずれが、年代の下るほど増加したのである。次に支配する領主の側からみると、彼らにとって領民の保有する石高は、年貢・課役の徴収基準であり、領民支配の基礎であったから、すこしでもその増加を図った。領内で実際に年貢賦課の対象となる石高は、領民の保有する石高の合計であり、内高(うちだか)とよばれた。これは、幕府から与えられた表面上の石高である表高(おもてだか)に対する語である。各領主は新田開発、検地による打出(うちだし)、隠田の摘発、農業技術の改良などにより、内高の増加に努めたから、内高は表高を上回ることも多く、年代の下るほどその傾向が強まった。内高の増加は、領主の収入増加を意味するが、反面、領民の収入減となる場合もあった。

 石高制は、さらに幕藩体制下の武士や農民の身分を規定し、家格を決める一因としての機能を有していた。すなわち、本百姓(ほんびゃくしょう)、無高(むだか)、水呑(みずのみ)などの身分は、農民の保有する石高の多少・有無によって規定された。また武士たちは、1万石以上を大名、1万石未満を旗本とするように、大名から軽輩の足軽に至るまで、それぞれ給付された所領の表高の大小によって格づけされ、家格が決められた。同時にその表高は彼らにとって、軍役その他の負担基準であった。

 以上のように、石高制は兵農分離の基礎として、あるいは封建的支配関係や身分関係の基準として、それらを規制したのであり、その意義は大きい。こうして石高制は太閤検地以降、幕藩体制の基礎としての機能を果たしつつ、1873年(明治6)の地租改正まで存続したのである。

[宮川 満]

[参照項目] | 太閤検地

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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