Envoys to the Tang Dynasty

Japanese: 遣唐使 - けんとうし
Envoys to the Tang Dynasty

Official envoys were sent from Japan to the Tang Dynasty (618-907) from the 7th to 9th centuries. The first was Inugami Mitasuki in August 630 (the second year of Emperor Jomei), and until 894 (the 6th year of Kanpei) when they were suspended due to a suggestion by Sugawara no Michizane, about 20 envoys were appointed, of which 16 actually crossed the sea.

[Yasutami Suzuki]

Organization

The organization of the Japanese missions to Tang China varied in size and content depending on the period, but according to the Engishiki, they included ambassadors, deputy envoys, judges, recorders, shipboard officials, translators, recipients of benefits, chief deities, physicians, onmyoji, painters, historians, archers, shipmasters, chief sound engineers, translators for Silla and Amami, and divination specialists. The ambassadors were sometimes supervised by a chief envoy and a senior envoy. The number of ships used by the envoys on their voyages was initially two, but later, during the Nara period, the basic number of ships was four. As the number of ships increased, the number of personnel also increased from 240-250 to over 500, reaching as many as 651 in the envoy sent in 838 (Jowa 5). The envoys' attendants included government officials and engineers, but the majority were crew members such as instructors, sailors, and sailors who were conscripted from the general public. The size of the ships is unknown, but judging from the number of ships and the total number of envoys, it appears that each ship was large enough to accommodate around 120 to 160 people.

[Yasutami Suzuki]

sea ​​route

The route of the envoy ships was from Naniwa (Osaka Bay) down the Seto Inland Sea to the west, entering Tsukushi no Otsuura (Hakata Bay) and setting sail from there. In the early days, they passed through Iki and Tsushima, traveled north along the west coast of Korea, and took the northern route (Silla Road) from the mouth of Bohai Bay to the Shandong Peninsula. However, after the Battle of Baekgang (663), diplomatic relations with Silla were severed, and the main route to the southern islands began to be taken, passing through the southern tip of Kyushu, Tatane (Tanegashima), Yaku (Yakushima), Tokara (Takarajima or Tokara Islands), Amami (Amami Oshima), Toko (Tokunoshima), Akonawa (Okinawa Island), Kumi (Kumejima), Shigaki (Ishigakijima), and other places, before crossing the East China Sea and heading for the mouth of the Yangtze River. This is the route that Ganjin took to arrive in Japan, as recorded in the "Tō Daiwajō Toseiden." Furthermore, from the latter half of the Nara period onwards, a southern route (oceanic route) began to be taken, leaving Otsuura and taking advantage of favourable winds from the area around Chika Island in Hizen (the Goto Islands) to cross the East China Sea in one go and head towards the shores of the Yangtze River.

The voyage of the Japanese envoys to Tang China was plagued by many difficulties, including seasickness. According to Ennin's "Records of a Pilgrimage to China in Search of the Law," they had to survive on wind, rain, and high waves while surviving on only dried steamed rice and unpasteurized water. If they fell seriously ill during the voyage, they could be left alone in a foreign land. Furthermore, due to the lack of shipbuilding and navigation skills, it was not uncommon for them to be shipwrecked and adrift. For example, in November 753 (Tenpyo Shoho 5), a ship carrying Fujiwara no Kiyokawa, Abe no Nakamaro, and others set sail from Suzhou for Agonaba Island, but was hit by a storm and swept southward, drifting to Annam (Vietnam). In the end, after much hardship, the two men returned to Tang China, and it is well known that, despite their homesickness, they served the Tang Dynasty for the rest of their lives.

[Yasutami Suzuki]

the purpose

Thus, the envoys always faced the risk of death when they went to Tang China, but the main purpose of the original missions was to introduce the systems and cultural artifacts of the Tang Dynasty. This was because Japan was trying to imitate the state system of the Tang Dynasty when forming an ancient Japanese state. In particular, in the cultural aspect, the accompanying students and scholars, monks, learned advanced culture, and produced many books and other cultural artifacts, which contributed greatly to the future.

In the Nara period, Japanese envoys were often sent on political and diplomatic missions. In particular, Japanese diplomacy at that time required frequent negotiations with Silla and the need to secure Japan's position in the international community of East Asia, and it was necessary to get the Tang Dynasty to recognize the vassal relationship between Japan and Silla, which was mediated by "tribute." This is reflected in the "Shoku Nihongi" (Chronicles of Japan Continued), entry for the 6th year of the Tenpyo Shoho era (754), in the New Year of 753 (the 12th year of the Tang Dynasty of Tenbao), in which Japan and Silla fought over seating at the Tang Dynasty's Imperial Court ceremony. On that day, the ranking of the various barbarian tribes placed Japan below the Second Toban (Tibet) on the west coast and Silla above the First Taishoku (Saracen) on the east coast. The deputy envoy, Otomo no Komaro, protested and had the rankings swapped.

Furthermore, from the end of the Nara period onwards, as their political and diplomatic missions began to fade, they began to send monks to study abroad and for trade interests.

During the Heian period, envoys were sent twice, in 804 (Enryaku 23) and 838 (Jowa 5), ​​but after that they were completely discontinued. This was due to a number of factors, including the loss of effectiveness of the missions' purpose and the government's financial difficulties, but since official negotiations with Silla ended in 779 (Hōki 10) and the Tang Dynasty was gradually declining after the An Lushan Rebellion (755-763), the significance of sending envoys in terms of diplomatic policy also disappeared. Economic needs also began to be satisfied through private trade with Tang and Silla merchants, which had become active from the 9th century onwards.

Thus, Sugawara no Michizane, who was appointed ambassador in 894 (Kanpei 6), requested that the missions be suspended, citing unrest in the Tang Dynasty and the difficulties of navigation. When his request was approved, the system of missions to Tang China was abolished.

[Yasutami Suzuki]

"History of Cultural Exchange between Japan and China" by Yasuhiko Kimiya (1955, Tomiyama Publishing) " The Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty" by Katsumi Mori (1965, Shibundo Publishing) " Japan and China in the Era of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty" edited by Namio Egami (1982, Shogakukan Publishing)

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (1)
©Shogakukan ">

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (1)

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (2)
©Shogakukan ">

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (2)

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (3)
©Shogakukan ">

List of Japanese Envoys to the Tang Dynasty (3)

Estimated route of the Japanese envoys to Tang China
©Shogakukan ">

Estimated route of the Japanese envoys to Tang China


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

7世紀から9世紀にかけて日本から唐(618~907)に派遣された公式の使節。630年(舒明天皇2)8月に犬上御田鍬(耜)(いぬがみのみたすき)を派遣したのを最初とし、894年(寛平6)に菅原道真(すがわらのみちざね)の建議によって停止されるまで、約20回の任命があり、うち16回は実際に渡海している。

[鈴木靖民]

組織

遣唐使の組織は、時期によって規模・内容を異にするが、『延喜式(えんぎしき)』によると、大使(たいし)、副使(ふくし)、判官(はんがん)、録事(ろくじ)、知乗船事(ちじょうせんじ)、訳語(おさ)、請益生(しょうやくしょう)、主神(しゅじん)、医師(いし)、陰陽師(おんみょうじ)、画師(えし)、史生(ししょう)、射手(しゃしゅ)、船師(ふなし)、音声長(おんじょうちょう)、新羅(しらぎ)・奄美訳語(あまみのおさ)、卜部(うらべ)、留学生(りゅうがくしょう)、学問僧(がくもんそう)、傔従(けんじゅう)、雑使(ぞうし)、音声生(おんじょうしょう)、玉生(ぎょくしょう)、鍛生(たんしょう)、鋳生(ちゅうしょう)、細工生(さいくしょう)、船匠(ふなしょう)、師(かじし)、傔人(けんじん)、梜杪(かじとり)、水手長(かこちょう)、水手(かこ)という構成であり、ときには大使の上に執節使(しっせつし)、押使(おうし)が置かれたこともあった。使節が渡航に用いる船数は、当初は2隻、のち奈良時代になると4隻編成が基本となる。船数の増加に伴って員数も240~250人から500人以上になり、838年(承和5)の遣使では651人という多人数になっている。使の随員には、官人のほか技術者などがいるが、大多数は公民から徴発された師、梜杪、水手などの乗組員である。船の大きさは不明であるが、船数と使節団の総数から試算すると、1隻につき120人から160人程度乗り込める規模であったようである。

[鈴木靖民]

航路

使船の航路は、難波(なにわ)(大阪湾)から瀬戸内海を西下し、筑紫大津浦(つくしのおおつのうら)(博多(はかた)湾)に入り、ここから出航した。初期は壱岐(いき)・対馬(つしま)を経て朝鮮の西沿岸を北上し、渤海(ぼっかい)湾口から山東半島に至る北路(新羅(しらぎ)道)がとられた。ところが、白村江(はくそんこう)の戦い(663)ののち、新羅との国交がとだえると、九州南端から多褹(たね)(種子島(たねがしま))、夜久(やく)(屋久島)、吐火羅(とから)(宝島(たからじま)あるいは吐噶喇列島(とかられっとう))、奄美(あまみ)(奄美大島)、度感(とこ)(徳之島)、阿児奈波(あこなわ)(沖縄島)、球美(くみ)(久米島(くめじま))、信覚(しがき)(石垣島)などを経由して、東シナ海を横断して揚子江(ようすこう)口を目ざす南島路がおもにとられるようになった。『唐大和上東征伝(とうだいわじょうとうせいでん)』に記される鑑真(がんじん)の来日航路がこれにあたる。さらに奈良時代後半以降になると、大津浦をたち、肥前値嘉島(ちかのしま)(五島列島)付近から順風を利用して一気に東シナ海を横断して揚子江岸に向かう南路(大洋路)がとられるようになった。

 遣唐使船の航海にはさまざまな困難が付きまとい、船酔いもさることながら、円仁(えんにん)の『入唐求法巡礼行記(にっとうぐほうじゅんれいぎょうき)』によると、糒(ほしいい)(蒸米(むしごめ)を乾かした携帯・保存食)と生水のみで飢えをしのぎながら風雨、高浪を乗り越えなければならず、航行中重病になればひとり異国に置き去りにされることもあった。また造船技術、航海術が未熟なため、難破漂流することも珍しくなかった。たとえば753年(天平勝宝5)11月、藤原清河(ふじわらのきよかわ)、阿倍仲麻呂(あべのなかまろ)らを乗せ、蘇州(そしゅう)から阿児奈波島へ向けて出帆した帰国船が暴風にあい、南方へ流され安南(あんなん)(ベトナム)に漂着した。結局、2人は辛苦のすえ帰唐し、望郷の念を抱きつつも生涯唐朝に仕えたのは有名である。

[鈴木靖民]

目的

このように使節はつねに死の危険と直面しながら渡唐したわけであるが、当初の遣唐使の主目的は、唐の制度・文物を導入することにあった。これは、日本の古代国家を形成するうえで唐帝国の国制を模倣しようとしたためにほかならない。とくに文化面でも、同行した留学生、学問僧らによる先進文化の習得、書籍その他の文化的所産の将来に多大な成果をあげた。

 奈良時代に入ると、おもに政治外交上の使命を帯びて派遣されることが多くなった。とくに当時の日本の外交は、新羅との頻繁な交渉とともに、東アジアの国際社会で日本の地位を確保することが要請されており、新羅の「朝貢」を媒体とする宗属関係を唐に承認させる必要があった。このことは『続日本紀(しょくにほんぎ)』天平勝宝(てんぴょうしょうほう)6年(754)条に記されている753年(唐の天宝12)正月、唐の朝賀の場における新羅との席次争いの一件に現れている。当日、諸蕃(しょばん)の席次で日本を西畔第二吐蕃(とばん)(チベット)の下に置き、新羅を東畔第一大食(たいしょく)国(サラセン)の上に置いたので、副使大伴古麻呂(おおとものこまろ)が抗議をし、双方の順位を入れ替えさせたのである。

 さらに奈良時代末以降になり、政治外交上の使命が薄れてくると、僧侶(そうりょ)の留学および貿易的利益を目的として派遣されるようになっていった。

 平安時代には804年(延暦23)と838年(承和5)の2回にわたって遣使されているが、それ以降はまったく中断した。これは、使の目的の実効性の喪失、政府の財政難などがあげられるが、新羅との公的交渉が779年(宝亀10)に終わり、唐も安史の乱(755~763)後しだいに衰運に向かいつつあったので、遣使の外交政策上の意義もなくなってきたのである。また9世紀以降活発になった唐人・新羅人商人との私貿易により経済上の欲求も満たされるようになった。

 かくして、894年(寛平6)大使に任命された菅原道真が唐の擾乱(じょうらん)、航海の困難などを理由に停止を要請し、それが承認されると遣唐使の制も廃絶されることになった。

[鈴木靖民]

『木宮泰彦著『日華文化交流史』(1955・冨山房)』『森克己著『遣唐使』(1965・至文堂)』『江上波夫編『遣唐使時代の日本と中国』(1982・小学館)』

遣唐使一覧(1)
©Shogakukan">

遣唐使一覧(1)

遣唐使一覧(2)
©Shogakukan">

遣唐使一覧(2)

遣唐使一覧(3)
©Shogakukan">

遣唐使一覧(3)

遣唐使の推定経路
©Shogakukan">

遣唐使の推定経路


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