It refers to the long-term expansion of a country's economic scale. It is generally measured by real gross national product, and the economic growth rate is indicated by its rate of increase. Real gross national product is calculated by processing nominal gross national product with a comprehensive price index, so price fluctuations are eliminated. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Factors behind economic growthIn order for economic growth to occur, on the one hand, an increase in production capacity is necessary, and on the other hand, that production capacity must be utilized to increase annual production. What determines production capacity is labor, capital, and technology, while what determines annual production is annual effective demand. Therefore, the factors that cause economic growth include the following: (1) Technological innovation During periods of technological innovation, new resources, new products, and new technologies emerge one after another, which leads to the creation of new industries and the adoption of new production methods, which in turn leads to increased capital investment. Capital investment not only increases production capacity, but also increases effective demand and increases production, and is the driving force behind economic growth. In fact, after World War II, powerful technological innovation unfolded, centered on the electronics and petrochemical industries, and as a result, the economic growth rates of advanced industrial countries were significantly higher than before the war. (2) Capital Accumulation The accumulation of physical capital through capital investment has the effect of increasing labor productivity by increasing the amount of capital per labor force, that is, capital intensity. (3) Capital supply: A huge amount of investment capital is required to promote the accumulation of real capital. The supply of this capital basically depends on the savings rate of the country, but the introduction of foreign capital is also a possibility. (4) Population growth On the one hand, it increases the labor force and production capacity, while on the other hand it increases consumer demand, leading to market expansion. In Japan, the population continues to decline, making growth factors difficult. (5) Expansion of domestic and international markets The expansion of domestic markets due to improved income distribution, and the expansion of overseas markets due to expanded trade scope, will sustainably increase effective demand and realize economic growth. (6) Other Factors that contribute to economic growth are wide-ranging, including appropriate fiscal and monetary policies, industrial policies that maintain competition among companies, stable labor-management relations, and educational standards that affect technological development and the quality of the labor force. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Main Features of Japan's Postwar Economic GrowthThe Japanese economy after World War II can be roughly divided into several periods, each of which has its own characteristics. The first period was from 1945 to 1954, a period of economic recovery. This was a time when economic recovery was achieved based on improvements in the country's constitution through a series of economic democratization policies, including land reform, and this built the foundations for the high economic growth that followed. The second period was from 1955 to 1964, a period of development. High investment and high growth continued, mainly due to the introduction, assimilation, and establishment of overseas technology by foreign capital, the industrial structure became more sophisticated, international competitiveness gradually strengthened, and so-called internationalization, such as trade liberalization and capital liberalization, also progressed. Furthermore, during this period, Japan's labor force, which had been considered excessive since the Meiji era, finally became insufficient, which facilitated industrial modernization and aided development. The third period was the early 1960s (1965-1970), the second period of economic development. After the 1965 recession, in order to respond to the deepening labor shortage and the ongoing liberalization of trade and capital, domestic development of large-scale technologies and full-scale modernization of small and medium-sized enterprises progressed, and an investment boom was rekindled, resulting in a resurgence of high economic growth. During this period, labor productivity increased significantly, and despite rising wage levels, international competitiveness further increased, a surplus in the balance of payments became established, and the internationalization of the economy also progressed. To summarize again, this was the period of high economic growth, also known as the "Izanagi boom." It was a time when productivity improved with capital investment at the core, and the international competitiveness of the Japanese economy was demonstrated under a fixed exchange rate of 360 yen to the dollar. The Japanese economy began to catch up with the developed countries of Europe and the United States. The fourth period was from 1971 to 1974, a time of change. In 1971, there was the dollar shock, which meant the suspension of gold-dollar convertibility and a readjustment of exchange rates, in 1972 the economy overheated, in 1973 there was a shift to a floating exchange rate system, a rise in the prices of primary products, the first oil shock, and in 1974 there was a severe adjustment recession, which led to the first negative growth since the war. This was a period of constant upheaval, and Japan's international competitiveness declined significantly. The fifth period was the whole of the 1970s (1975-1984), also known as the period of low growth. First, the economic growth rate slowed after the first oil crisis, so companies underwent restructuring so that they could increase profits even with low growth. This was a passive response, so to speak. Next, as a proactive response, every effort was made to conserve energy and labor, and the results were remarkable. When the second oil crisis occurred in 1979, Japan's comparative advantage became even more evident, and the country aimed for medium growth. At the same time, pollution and environmental problems that had arisen during the period of high growth became more serious. The sixth period was from the 1980s to the 1989s (1985-1989), a time of international cooperation and imbalance. The exchange rate fluctuated between 240 and 260 yen to the dollar, and the yen was generally strong and the dollar was weak. In 1987, the yen was strong at 121 yen to the dollar, which caused a trade imbalance. The government implemented a policy to expand domestic demand based on the "Maekawa Report" (a report on international cooperation and content-oriented issues by Haruo Maekawa, chairman of the "Study Group on Structural Adjustment for International Cooperation," April 1986). This resulted in a decrease in exports and an increase in imports, and the country faced low growth, unstable prices, and sluggish capital investment. While choosing policies to overcome these trends, the Japanese economy entered a bubble. As a result, rising land prices, accumulation of bad loans, and ultra-low interest rate policies led to a financial crisis in the Japanese economy, and instability came to the surface. The seventh period was from 1990 to 1999, a period of low growth. The bubble burst in 1991. Consumer prices fell, but incomes did not grow, leading to job instability. Of course, neither did capital investment or exports grow. In particular, from the latter half of the 1990s, banks that had supplied excessive funds to the land, real estate, construction, housing-related, and transportation industries were left with huge amounts of bad debt and faced a management crisis. This situation led to a decline in asset prices and stock prices. The financial recession hit the Japanese economy hard, and in 1997 many companies, including top financial institutions such as Hokkaido Takushoku Bank and Yamaichi Securities, went bankrupt. In April 1997, the government, supported by a slight virtuous cycle, raised the consumption tax to 5%, projecting tax revenues of 9 trillion yen. Of course, the Ministry of Finance and the government insisted that the tax be used to cover accumulated deficits and increased social security spending. The economy began to fall into recession around the fall of 1997. Consumption fell, industrial production declined, and the number of unemployed people soared. The public made harsh criticisms of the government's economic policies. Looking at trends in consumer spending by income bracket from the Management and Coordination Agency's "Household Income and Expenditure Survey" (1998), the consumption expenditure of the high-income bracket was increasing, but that of the average-income bracket was decreasing, and even that of the low-income bracket was decreasing. In light of these results, the government should have put forward policies that would increase the incomes of the low- and middle-income brackets, and demonstrated the revitalization of the Japanese economy. This was also what the public wanted. The eighth period is from 2000 to 2008, and covers the period when the Japanese economy continued to enjoy "medium growth" and the Lehman Shock (Great Financial Recession) occurred on September 15, 2008. The economic recovery that began in 2002 and continued as the "longest record" since the war came to an end in 2007. The factor that sustained the economic recovery was export guidance. Using an index with 2002 set at 100, in 2007 exports were 159, domestic private demand was 111, and public demand was 96 (Cabinet Office, "National Economic Accounts"). The reason for the lack of growth in domestic demand was sluggish consumption. This was because wages did not increase in line with the increase in profits at major companies. In the "Basic Policy on Economic and Fiscal Management and Structural Reform 2006," the government set out three challenges for the Japanese economy in the "Decade of New Challenges," including (1) "strengthening growth potential and competitiveness," (2) "fiscal consolidation," and (3) "ensuring safety and security and realizing a flexible and diverse society." However, the government was asked how to tackle issues such as declining growth potential, further fiscal deficits, income disparities, employment instability, increasing unemployment, approximately 17.6 million non-regular employees (2008, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications "Labor Force Survey"), widening disparities between urban and rural areas, increasing burdens on the elderly, increasing burdens on education, and delayed response to the declining birthrate and aging population. Furthermore, the financial crisis that hit the US and Europe on September 15, 2008 has materialized as a severe recession in the real economy for the Japanese economy. In 2009, management crises in companies in the automobile, electronics, machinery, construction, real estate, and housing industries have worsened. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has made a grim prediction that Japan's growth rate for 2009 will be minus 5.8%. The Japanese economy is being asked how to deal with the wage freezes of major companies, tightening of management, bankruptcies of small and medium-sized enterprises related to major recessionary industries, the increase in unemployment, the increase in non-regular employees, difficulty in finding employment for new graduates, and the increase in households on welfare. The IMF also pointed out the need for countries to cooperate in strengthening monetary policy and fiscal stimulus as a measure against the global recession, and said that the G20 (Group of 20 countries and regions) should aim for a fiscal stimulus of 2% of gross domestic product (GDP), but it was expressed the view that this would be difficult to achieve in 2010, and some also believed that additional stimulus measures were necessary. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Growth theoryAs mentioned above, in response to the historic rise in technological innovation after the Second World War and the resulting reality of progress and stagnation in economic growth, economics also saw a rise in economic growth theories that explored long-term trends such as population growth, capital accumulation, and technological progress, and showed diverse and sophisticated developments. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Harrod-Domar theoryModern economic growth theory began with the pioneering work of R. F. Harrod and E. Domar. In Keynes's short-term theory, production capacity P was considered constant, and unemployment was observed when income Y fell below production capacity P. However, the Harrod-Domar theory, a long-term theory, considers capital stock K (and also population and technology) to be variable, and therefore production capacity P also changes, and explores the relationship between this and income Y. Now, starting from the state where productive capacity is fully utilized, P = Y , the conditions for continuously fully utilizing the increasing productive capacity, Harrod's "appropriate growth rate" gw is the same as Domar's growth rate of full utilization. If we denote the inverse of σ by v , it indicates the amount of capital stock required for one unit of production, and is called the required capital coefficient. When income (production) increases, a capital stock equal to v multiplied by this ( ΔK = v ΔY ) is required, so the necessary investment , i.e., the demand for capital goods, is I = v ΔY . Meanwhile, the supply of capital goods is nothing more than the remainder from production at that time used for consumption , i.e., savings, so it is S = sY. Therefore, the growth rate at which capital goods supply and demand match, i.e., the growth rate at which capital stock is fully utilized, is, Harrod further introduces the concept of the natural growth rate g n . This is the growth rate that employs all of the increasing labor force, and if the labor force growth rate is n and the rate of technological progress is β, then g n = n + β. If the appropriate growth rate g w and the natural growth rate g n are in harmony and the actual growth rate g is equal to these, then g = gw = gn , which is the ideal balanced growth, but he argues that this is difficult to achieve, and even if it were achieved, any deviation from it would create further deviations and be unstable. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] Subsequent developmentsThe Harrod-Domar growth theory asserted dynamic instability, but this theory was based on a great many simplifying assumptions.In contrast, the neoclassical growth theories of R.M. Solow, T.W. Swan, J.E. Mead and others removed the assumption that the capital coefficient v was fixed, created a v -variable model with a continuous production function, and proved dynamic stability. The assumption of a fixed v was removed by the neoclassical school, but many simplifying assumptions remain. These include the assumption of a constant savings rate s , the assumption of a constant labor force growth rate n , the assumption of a constant state of technology, the assumption of a one-commodity theory, and the assumption of homogeneity of capital. These assumptions were removed one after another, and growth theory showed a variety of developments. N. Kaldor developed the variable s model, and T. Haubermo made the labor force growth rate n variable. Among them, the development of the theory of economic growth accompanied by technological progress has been remarkable. That is, the three types of understanding of technological progress, Harrod neutral, Hicks neutral, and Solow neutral (also labor-saving and capital-saving, respectively), are well-known, but N. Kaldor's technological progress function and J. Robinson's understanding are also unique. The assumption of a one-commodity theory was removed, and progress was made to the two-sector model and then to the multi-sector growth theory. Furthermore, von Neumann pursued the optimal growth path, and eventually the turnpike theorem was born. Furthermore, there is the vintage model which considers capital to be a collection of heterogeneous elements, the monetary growth theory of J. Tobin and others, and in his book Capital and Time (1973), Hicks revived the Austrian school of capital theory and attempted a new development in growth theory. The limitations of this theory have also been recognized amid the Great Depression and long-term stagnation. The challenge is how to construct a growth theory that can protect the environment and improve welfare. There is hope for the construction of a growth theory that incorporates social capital. [Toyosaburo Sato and Yoshiharu Shimizu] "An Introduction to Dynamic Economics" by R. Harrod, translated by Takahashi Chotaro and Suzuki Ryoichi (1953, Yuhikaku) " ▽ "Modern Economics: Theory of Macroeconomic Analysis" by R. G. D. Allen, translated by Shinkai Yoichi and Watanabe Tsunehiko, 2 volumes (1968, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "Economic Growth Theory" by Ara Kenjiro (1969, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Perspectives on Economic Growth Theory" by F. Hearn and R. Matthews (included in Perspectives on Modern Economic Theory II, edited by the American Economic Association and the Royal Economic Society, translated by the Kobe University Economic Theory Study Group, 1972, Diamond Inc.)" ▽ "The Japanese Economy: Its Growth and Structure" by Nakamura Takahide (1978, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ "Japan's Economic Development" by Minami Ryoshin (1982, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "The Quality of Economic Growth, by V. Thomas et al., translated by Obama Hirohisa et al. (2002, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "The Essence of Economic Growth, by A.P. Thirlwall, translated by Shimizu Takao (2003, Gakubunsha)" ▽ "The Global Environment and Endogenous Economic Growth, by Igasaki Dairi (2004, Kyushu University Press)" ▽ "Japan's Economy, by Shimanaka Yuji (2004, Kadokawa Shoten)" ▽ "Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, various annual editions of the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare White Paper (Gyosei)" ▽ "Economy and Economic Policy, by Ono Yoshiyasu (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "What is the Economy?, by Yamaya Yukio (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Japan's Economy, by Ito Osamu (Chuko Shinsho)" [References] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
一国の経済規模の長期にわたる拡大をいう。その計測は実質国民総生産によるのが一般的であり、経済成長率はその増加率によって示される。実質国民総生産は、名目国民総生産を総合的な物価指数で処理したものであるから、物価変動は消去されている。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 経済成長の要因経済成長が実現するためには、一方において生産能力の増大が必要であるとともに、他方においてその生産能力を利用して年々の生産が増大してゆく必要がある。そして生産能力を決定するものは労働力、資本、技術であり、年々の生産を決定するものは年々の有効需要である。したがって、経済成長の要因としては次のようなものがあげられる。 (1)技術革新 技術革新期には新資源、新商品、新技術が続出し、それによって新産業の生成、新生産方法の採用が相次ぐが、それは設備投資の高揚にほかならない。設備投資は生産能力を増大させるのみでなく、有効需要を増大させ、生産を増大させるものであって、経済成長の原動力である。現に第二次世界大戦後、電子工業と石油化学工業を中心とする強力な技術革新が展開し、そのために先進工業国の経済成長率は戦前に比べて際だって高まった。 (2)資本蓄積 設備投資による実物資本の蓄積は、労働力1人当りの資本量、すなわち資本集約度を高めることを通じて、労働生産性を上昇させるという一面をもつ。 (3)資金供給 実物資本の蓄積を進めるには巨額の投資資金が必要である。この資金供給は、基本的にはその国の貯蓄率に依存するが、外資の導入も考えられる。 (4)人口増加 一方において労働力を増加させ、生産能力を増大させるとともに、他方において消費需要を増大させ、市場の拡大につながる。日本では人口減少が続き、成長要因を厳しくしている。 (5)内外市場の拡大 所得分配の改善による国内市場の拡大や、通商範囲の拡大による海外市場の拡大などは、有効需要を持続的に増大させ、経済成長を実現させる。 (6)その他 適切な財政・金融政策、企業間の競争を維持させる産業政策、安定した労使関係、さらに技術開発や労働力の質にかかわる教育水準など、経済成長の要因は広範囲にわたる。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 戦後日本の経済成長のおもな特徴第二次世界大戦後の日本経済は、大まかにいくつかの時期に分けると、それぞれの特徴をみることができる。 第1期は昭和20年代(1945~54)で、経済復興期である。農地改革をはじめとする一連の経済民主化政策による体質改善を基礎にして、経済復興を果たし、その後の高度成長の基盤を築いた時期である。 第2期は昭和30年代(1955~64)で、発展期である。外資による海外技術の導入、消化、定着を主因として、高投資、高成長が続き、産業構造の高度化も進み、国際競争力もしだいに強化されて、貿易自由化、資本自由化などのいわゆる国際化も進んだ。なお、この時期に、日本の明治以来過剰といわれた労働力がようやく不足し、それが産業の近代化を容易にして、発展を助けた。 第3期は昭和40年代前半(1965~70)で、第二の経済発展期である。1965年不況のあと、深まる労働力不足や進展する貿易・資本の自由化に対応するため、大型技術の国内開発と中小企業の本格的な近代化が進み、ここに投資ブームが再燃し、高度成長が再発した。この時期の労働生産性の上昇は著しく、賃金水準の上昇にもかかわらず、国際競争力はさらに上昇して、国際収支の黒字も定着し、経済の国際化も進展した。改めて整理すると、高度成長の時代であり、「いざなぎ景気」ともいわれた時期である。設備投資を軸に生産性の向上、そして1ドル360円という固定為替(かわせ)相場のもと日本経済の国際競争力を示した時期でもあった。日本経済は、欧米の先進諸国に追い付くようになった。 第4期は昭和40年代後半(1971~74)で、変動期である。1971年にはドル・ショックすなわち金・ドル交換停止、為替相場の再調整、1972年は景気過熱、1973年には変動相場制移行、一次産品価格の高騰、そして第一次オイル・ショック、1974年は激しい調整不況で戦後初めてのマイナス成長となった。この期は激動が続き、日本の国際競争力は大幅に低下した。 第5期は昭和50年代全般(1975~84)で、低成長期ともいわれた。まず、第一次オイル・ショック以後経済成長率が鈍化したので、低成長でも収益があがるように、企業の体質転換が行われた。いわば受動的対応である。ついで積極的対応として、省エネルギー、省力のためのあらゆる努力が追求されたが、その成果は目覚ましく、1979年に第二次オイル・ショックが発生すると、日本の比較優位がいっそう明らかになり、中成長へと志向した。同時に、高度成長期のなかで発生した公害・環境問題も深刻になってきた。 第6期は昭和60年代から平成1年(1985~89)で国際協調と不均衡の時期である。1ドルが240円から260円までの為替レートの変動下にあり、全体として円高、ドル安基調であった。1987年に1ドル121円の円高水準になり、貿易の不均衡をもたらした。政府は「前川レポート」(1986年4月「国際協調のための構造調整研究会」前川春雄座長による国際協力、内容重視の報告書)による内需拡大政策を実行した。その結果、輸出の減少、輸入の増加をもたらし、低成長、物価不安定、設備投資不振に直面した。こうした傾向を脱皮する政策を選択しているうちに、日本経済はバブルに突入した。その結果、地価高騰、不良債権の累積、超低金利政策が日本経済の金融危機を招き、不安定性が表面化した。 第7期は平成2年から11年(1990~99)で、低成長の時期である。1991年にバブルが崩壊した。消費者物価は低下したが、所得は伸びず、雇用不安をもたらした。もちろん設備投資、輸出も伸びなかった。とりわけ1990年代後半ごろから、土地、不動産、建設、住宅関連業、運送業などに過剰な資金供給をした銀行は、莫大(ばくだい)な不良債権を抱え込み、経営危機に直面した。こうした状況は、資産価格の低下と株価低下を招来した。金融不況が日本経済を直撃し、1997年には、北海道拓殖銀行、山一証券など一流の金融業をはじめ多くの企業が倒産した。1997年4月に政府は、若干の好循環に支えられ消費税を5%に引き上げ、9兆円の税収を見込んだ。もちろん大蔵省・政府は、累積赤字や社会保障の支出増などに充当することを主張した。 1997年秋ごろから景気は後退した。消費は落ち込み、鉱工業生産も低下し、失業者数も急増した。政府の経済政策に対して国民から厳しい注文が寄せられた。総務庁の「家計調査」(1998)による所得階層別の消費支出の動きをみると高所得層の消費支出は増加しているが平均所得層の消費支出は低下し、さらに低所得層の消費支出も低下した。この結果からみて政府は低・中所得層の所得を上昇させる諸条件を政策として打ち出し、日本経済の活性化を示すべきであった。それは国民からの要望でもあった。 第8期は平成12~20年(2000~08)で、日本経済の「中成長」持続と2008年9月15日のリーマン・ショック(金融大不況)期である。2002年に始まり戦後「最長記録」を続けた景気回復は2007年に終了した。景気回復を持続的に支えた要因は、輸出指導にあった。2002年を100とする指数でみると、2007年に輸出は159、国内民間需要は111、公的需要は96である(内閣府「国民経済計算」)。国内需要が伸びなかったのは、消費の低迷にあった。それは、大手企業の利潤増に対して賃金が伸びなかったからである。政府は「経済財政運営と構造改革に関する基本方針2006」で「新たな挑戦の10年」へ「日本経済が立ち向かう3つの挑戦」として(1)「成長力・競争力の強化」(2)「財政健全化」(3)「安全・安心の確保と柔軟で多様な社会の実現」の方針を出した。だが成長力の低下、財政のさらなる赤字、所得格差、雇用の不安定、失業者の増大、非正社員約1760万人(2008、総務省「労働力調査」)、都市と地方の格差拡大、後期高齢者負担増、教育の負担増、少子・高齢化への対応の遅れなどの課題に対してどう立ち向かうかが問われた。 さらに2008年9月15日にアメリカ、ヨーロッパを襲った金融大不況は、日本経済に対しても厳しい実体経済への不況として具体化している。2009年に入って、自動車、電機、機械、建築、不動産、住宅などの企業の経営危機が進んだ。IMF(国際通貨基金)は2009年の日本の成長率マイナス5.8%と厳しい予測をした。日本経済は、大手企業の賃金凍結、経営の引締め、さらに大手不況業種の関連中小企業の経営破綻(はたん)、失業者増、非正社員増、新規学卒者就職難、生活保護世帯増などにどのように対処していくのかが問われた。IMFも世界大不況への対策としては、各国が協調して金融政策や財政出動を強化する必要性を指摘し、G20(主要20か国・地域)は財政出動の規模を国内総生産(GDP)の2%を目安にすべきだとしたが、2010年は達成困難との見方を示し、追加の刺激策が必要という見方もあった。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 成長理論前述したような第二次世界大戦後の歴史的な技術革新の高まり、それに基づく経済成長の進展と停滞という現実に対応して、経済学においても、人口増加、資本蓄積、技術進歩といった長期的な動きを追究する経済成長理論が活発となり、多彩、精緻(せいち)な展開を示した。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] ハロッド‐ドーマー理論現代の経済成長理論はR・F・ハロッドとE・ドーマーの先駆的業績に始まる。短期理論のケインズ理論では、生産能力Pは一定とされ、所得Yが生産能力Pを下回るところに失業の発生をとらえたが、長期理論であるハロッド‐ドーマー理論では、資本ストックKを(さらには人口、技術も)可変にし、したがって生産能力Pも変化するものとし、それと所得Yとの関係を追究する。 いま、生産能力が完全に利用されている状態、P=Yから出発して、増加する生産能力を持続的に完全に利用する条件、 ハロッドの「適正成長率」gwは、ドーマーの完全利用成長と同内容である。いまσの逆数をvで示せば、それは生産量1単位のために必要な資本ストック量を示し、必要資本係数とよぶ。所得(生産)が増大すると、それにvを乗じただけの資本ストック(ΔK=vΔY)が必要となるから、必要とする投資すなわち資本財需要はI=vΔYであり、一方、資本財の供給は、そのときの生産から消費に使った残余すなわち貯蓄にほかならないから、それはS=sYである。したがって、資本財需給の一致する成長率、すなわち資本ストックが完全利用される成長率は、 ハロッドはさらに自然成長率gnという概念を示す。それは、増加する労働力をすべて雇用する成長率で、労働力増加率をn、技術進歩率をβとすれば、gn=n+βである。適正成長率gwと自然成長率gnが調和し、それに現実成長率gが等しければ、g=gw=gnで、理想的な均斉成長であるが、その実現は困難であり、またたとえそれが実現したとしても、それからの乖離(かいり)はさらに乖離を生み、不安定であると説く。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] その後の諸展開ハロッド‐ドーマーの成長理論は動学的不安定性を主張したが、この理論は実に多くの単純化のための仮定のうえに成り立っている。これに対して、資本係数v固定という一仮定を解除して、連続生産関数によるv可変モデルをつくり、動学的安定性を立証したのが、R・M・ソロー、T・W・スワン、J・E・ミードなどの新古典学派の成長理論である。 新古典学派によってv固定の仮定は解除されたが、まだ多数の単純化の仮定が残る。貯蓄率s一定の仮定、労働力増加率n一定の仮定、技術状態一定の仮定、一財理論の仮定、資本の同質性の仮定などがそれである。これらの仮定は次々に解除されて、成長理論は多彩な展開を示す。s可変モデルはN・カルドアが展開し、T・ホーベルモは労働力増加率nを可変にした。なかでも技術進歩を伴う経済成長理論の展開は目覚ましい。すなわち、ハロッド中立、ヒックス中立、ソロー中立(同じくそれぞれ労働節約的、資本節約的)の三つのタイプの技術進歩のとらえ方が有名であるが、そのほかにN・カルドアの技術進歩関数やJ・ロビンソンのとらえ方も特異である。一財理論の仮定は解除されて、二部門モデル、さらに多部門成長論に進む。またフォン・ノイマンは最適成長経路を追究し、やがてターンパイク定理も生まれた。さらに、資本を異質的なものの集合とするビンテージ・モデルがあり、J・トービンらの貨幣的な成長理論もあり、またヒックスはその著『資本と時間』(1973)で、オーストリア学派の資本理論を復活させて、成長理論の新展開を企てた。この理論も大不況、長期停滞のなかで、その限界も認識されてきた。環境保全と福祉の充実のために成長理論をどのように構築するかが課題となる。社会資本を組み入れた成長理論の構築が期待されている。 [佐藤豊三郎・清水嘉治] 『R・ハロッド著、高橋長太郎・鈴木諒一訳『動態経済学序説』(1953・有斐閣)』▽『R・G・D・アレン著、新開陽一・渡部経彦訳『現代経済学・マクロ分析の理論』全2冊(1968・東洋経済新報社)』▽『荒憲治郎著『経済成長論』(1969・岩波書店)』▽『F・ハーン、R・マッシューズ著「経済成長理論展望」(アメリカ経済学会・王立経済協会編、神戸大学経済理論研究会訳『現代経済理論の展望Ⅱ』所収・1972・ダイヤモンド社)』▽『中村隆英著『日本経済・その成長と構造』(1978・東京大学出版会)』▽『南亮進著『日本の経済発展』(1982・東洋経済新報社)』▽『V・トーマス他著、小浜裕久他訳『経済成長の質』(2002・東洋経済新報社)』▽『A・P・サールウォール著、清水隆雄訳『経済成長の本質』(2003・学文社)』▽『伊ヶ崎大理著『地球環境と内生的経済成長』(2004・九州大学出版会)』▽『嶋中雄二著『日本の景気』(2004・角川書店)』▽『厚生労働省編『厚生労働白書』各年版(ぎょうせい)』▽『小野善康著『景気と経済政策』(岩波新書)』▽『山家悠紀夫著『景気とは何だろうか』(岩波新書)』▽『伊藤修著『日本の経済』(中公新書)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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