Bureaucracy - kanryosei (English spelling) bureaucracy

Japanese: 官僚制 - かんりょうせい(英語表記)bureaucracy
Bureaucracy - kanryosei (English spelling) bureaucracy

Origin of the word and change in meaning

The English word bureaucracy is a compound word that combines "bureau," meaning an office desk or, by extension, an office worker, with "cracy," which comes from the Greek word "kratos," or power, and is said to have appeared in France in the mid-18th century, and implied a new form of rule by a group of bureaucrats that differed from traditional forms of political rule such as monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, or the rise of a group of bureaucrats who exercised such rule. This word later came to be used widely in Germany, Britain, and other European countries, but throughout most of the 19th century, it was the German and French bureaucracies, and especially the Prussian and German bureaucracies, that were considered to be the epitome of bureaucracy in the sense of political rule by administrative bureaucrats.

However, at the beginning of the 20th century, both the factual and theoretical situations surrounding bureaucracy changed fundamentally. Looking first at the former, as suggested above, the actual background for the appearance and spread of the word bureaucracy was the bureaucracy of the French absolute monarchy before the French Revolution, and then the bureaucracy of Prussia and Germany, which had a long tradition dating back to the mid-16th century and had undergone the Stein-Hardenberg reforms in the early 19th century. However, the development of capitalist production relations and mass democracy since the 19th century not only promoted the "bourgeoisification" (in France after the French Revolution) or "modernization from above" (in the case of Prussia and Germany) of the bureaucracy in France, Prussia, and Germany, which originally had powerful states and bureaucracies because they were economically backward or underdeveloped countries, but also made the formation of a professional civil service system and the establishment of a bureaucracy in the sense of a rational, hierarchical organizational form inevitable in countries such as Britain and the United States, where capitalism was developing smoothly and civil society had strong autonomy, and therefore only needed a weak state.

Moreover, bureaucracy in the sense of a pyramidal, rational organizational form was not only seen in its pioneering form in the medieval Catholic Church, but is now a common feature found not only in nations but also in corporations, political parties, unions, and other large-scale organizations. It was Max Weber, who I will discuss later, who theorized modern and contemporary bureaucratization in this sense from a unique historical perspective.

However, even if we limit ourselves to modern states for the time being, the bureaucratization of administrative organizations raises serious problems in relation to the political principles of democracy, in the sense that it tends to bring about bureaucracy in the classical sense, that is, political control by administrative bureaucrats. Furthermore, attention has been drawn to the dysfunctional functions peculiar to bureaucratic administration, that is, the operation of a bureaucracy that is assumed to be technically the most excellent is not necessarily so, and the consciousness and behavior of the people embedded within it show various "pathological" phenomena that are usually referred to as "bureaucracy." Therefore, today's bureaucracy is,
(1) Control of politics by administrative bureaucrats = "bureaucratic politics"
(2) An organizational form rationally constructed based on the principles of division of labor and collaboration = "hierarchical control";
(3) The attitude and behavior that tend to accompany them = "bureaucracy"
It can be said that this has three implications:

[Taguchi Fukuji]

Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy

As is well known, Weber viewed "modernization," which is unique to Western Europe, as a process of "rationalization (for a purpose)," and its organizational form of expression as "bureaucratization." His theory of bureaucracy is developed as an ideal type linked to legitimate rule, one of his three types of legitimate rule. According to Weber, the unique functional modes of modern bureaucracy include the principle of authority systematized by rules, the principle of hierarchical control and jurisprudence, the execution of duties based on documents and staff, the separation of public and private life for administrative officials, work activities that require specialized training, the dedication of duties to a particular person, and the acquisition of special technical knowledge (law, public administration, business administration). Ideally, such a bureaucratic organization is superior in purely technical terms to all other administrative forms in terms of accuracy, speed, clarity, familiarity with documents, continuity, prudence, uniformity, strict obedience, prevention of friction, and savings in material and human costs. The conditions that promoted the emergence of modern bureaucracy in Western Europe were as follows:
(1) The development of a monetary economy,
(2) Quantitative and qualitative development of administrative affairs,
(3) the technical excellence of bureaucratic organizations;
(4) Concentration of administrative means in the hands of the chief executive (separation of administrative officials from administrative means),
(5) Leveling of social discrimination (emergence of mass democracy)
I would like to draw your attention to conditions (4) and (5) in particular.

So how did Weber perceive the characteristics of absolutist bureaucracy (and its legacy) in comparison with the bourgeois bureaucracy that had undergone a civil revolution or "bourgeoisization from above," which was close to his ideal type of modern bureaucracy? To critically characterize the latter, he used the terms "the patrimonial character of bureaucracy" or "patrimonial bureaucracy," and this may provide a clue. In other words, if the land and the people are regarded as the property of the chief, and the officials are not appointed by contract but are essentially regarded as the chief's private servants, then even if such a corps of officials is organized hierarchically and functions with material authority, it will exhibit characteristics that were typical of the Prussian bureaucracy at the end of the 18th century, such as absolute and unlimited loyalty to the monarch/state (personal obligation of obedience), a "hierarchy of authority" and status control within the hierarchy, and the privileges and guardianship principle of the official status in relation to the general public (Japan will be discussed later).

There is another noteworthy point about Weber's theory of bureaucracy. In contrast to the optimistic outlook of Marxists who considered bureaucracy to be a phenomenon unique to class society or capitalism, and who believed that in socialism the bureaucracy would easily be replaced by self-rule by the people, and that in a communist society the state and therefore the bureaucracy would also perish, Weber presented a pessimistic outlook that in socialism the mutual restraints between the state bureaucracy and private bureaucracies found in capitalism would be abolished to a certain extent, and the state bureaucracy would wield dictatorial power. I will return to this point later.

[Taguchi Fukuji]

Japanese bureaucracy

Japan's bureaucracy after the Meiji Restoration was formed and developed as a driver of "modernization" -- "enriching the country and strengthening the military" and "developing industry" -- to maintain the new Japan's independence from other countries (although this easily turned into external invasion), and as a central power structure for imperial autocratic rule in opposition to the Freedom and People's Rights Movement, etc. Let us take a general look at its characteristics from three aspects: governing structure, organizational form, and behavioral patterns.

First, although the governing system under the Meiji Constitution adopted an appearance of constitutionalism under the sovereignty of the Emperor, the civil and military bureaucracy, while supporting its influence in the Privy Council, the House of Peers, the Elders and senior vassals, etc., almost monopolized the center of power and important policy-making functions, or at least occupied the most important positions there. In that sense, it can be said that the governance of Japan under the Meiji Constitution was fundamentally characterized by rule by a group of imperial bureaucrats, i.e. bureaucratic politics.

Secondly, looking at its organizational structure, not only was there division among the various political forces at the governing body level, but there was also a marked sectionalism centered on each ministry at the administrative body level, a characteristic that did not disappear until the end of the war. There are various reasons for this, but in addition to the historical circumstances in which competing clan factions formed the governing body by borrowing the authority of the Emperor, who had no real power, the independence of supreme command under the Meiji Constitution, the establishment of the Privy Council, the strong authority of the House of Peers, the rejection of the parliamentary cabinet system, the system of sole advisory responsibility for ministers, and the system of holding the positions of Minister of State and Minister of Administrative Affairs concurrently had a major influence.

Thirdly, when we look at the characteristics of its behavioral patterns, we can say that the bureaucracy in Japan has a stronger patrimonial bureaucratic color, even compared to that of Prussia at the end of the 18th century. In other words, in the relationship between the bureaucracy and the people, there is guardianship control and the official recognition of the notion of discrimination between officials and the people, while in the internal relationships of the bureaucracy, there is the personal obligation of officials to obey the Emperor and the Imperial government, the status hierarchy of authority, and the inseparability of official position and personality, and these two relationships mutually regulate each other. Collectively, these can be called the behavioral patterns of authoritarian control. Even in prewar Japan, a public examination system was adopted for the appointment of officials, but this functioned to reproduce the privileged corps of officials in a clique-based manner, as seen in the "Kobun" (higher civil service examination) system.

In Japan after World War II, the imperial officials were transformed into public servants of the people, and a representative government structure was adopted, so that legally there was no longer any room for bureaucratic politics. However, with the rise of the new administrative state, the relationship between democracy and bureaucracy has been called into question once again, and the challenge is to overcome the sectionalism and red tape of the bureaucracy that result from the amalgamation of the prewar legacy and the new administrative state situation.

[Taguchi Fukuji]

Socialism and bureaucracy

In former socialist countries such as the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries, and in still-existing socialist countries such as China and North Korea, bureaucracy has not only not declined but has even expanded and strengthened, just as Weber predicted. The view that the source of the survival of bureaucracy in socialism lies in the remnants of capitalism or the backwardness of these countries is no longer persuasive. In this situation, some anti-establishment theorists in the former Soviet Union and elsewhere have expressed the view that the source lies in the low level of productivity there and, above all, in the relatively fixed stratified structure that is determined by the position that it occupies in the social division of labor. For example, András Hegedüs (1922- ) of Hungary located the essence of bureaucratic social relations in the fact that a social category (bureaucrats) whose job it is to manage and govern society has its own local interests that are separate from the interests of direct producers.He recognized that in existing socialism, the existence of bureaucracy in this sense is not only inevitable but also has a certain positive significance, as determined by the level of productivity and the stratification of the division of labor, and he is noteworthy for preaching the need / necessity of constantly "humanizing" bureaucracy and subjecting it to social control.

[Taguchi Fukuji]

"Sociology of Control, by Max Weber, translated by Sera Koshiro (1962, Sogensha)""Bureaucracy, by M. Albrow, translated by Kimimura Masaru (1974, Fukumura Publishing)""New Edition: Studies on Japanese Bureaucracy, by Tsuji Kiyoaki (1969, University of Tokyo Press)""Japanese Bureaucracy and Administrative Culture, by Ide Yoshinori (1982, University of Tokyo Press)""Lecture Series on Public Administration, edited by Nishio Masaru and Muramatsu Michio, Vol. 1 (1994, Yuhikaku)""The Establishment of Modern Japanese Bureaucracy: Reorganization of the Administrative System in the Postwar Occupation Period, by Okada Akira (1994, Hosei University Press)"

[References] | Weber | Patrimonial bureaucracy | Patrimonialism | Bureaucracy | Bureaucracy | Modernization | Sectionalism | Mass democracy | Hierarchy

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

ことばの由来と意味の変遷

英語のビューロクラシーということばは、事務机、転じて事務室、そこでの執務者を意味する「ビューロー」と、ギリシア語の「クラトス」kratosつまり力に由来する「クラシー」を結び付けた合成語で、18世紀なかば過ぎのフランスで登場したとされており、そこには伝統的な君主制、貴族制、民主制などの政治支配の形態とは異なった官僚集団による新しい支配、あるいはそのような支配を行う官僚集団の台頭という意味が込められていた。この語はその後、広くドイツ、イギリスなどヨーロッパ諸国で用いられるようになったが、ほぼ19世紀を通じて、行政官僚による政治支配という意味での官僚制の典型とみなされたのはドイツ、フランスの官僚制、なかんずくプロイセン・ドイツの官僚制であった。

 ところが20世紀に入るころになると、官僚制をめぐる事実状況も理論状況も根本的に変化してくる。まず前者からみると、先に示唆されたように、官僚制ということばの登場と流布の現実的背景となったのは、フランス大革命以前のフランス絶対王政の官僚制であり、ついで16世紀中葉以降の長い伝統をもちつつ19世紀初頭のシュタイン‐ハルデンベルクの改革を経たプロイセン・ドイツの官僚制であった。しかし19世紀以降の資本主義的生産関係と大衆デモクラシーとの進展は、経済的後進国ないし後発国であったために、もともと強大な国家・官僚制をもっていたフランスおよびプロイセン・ドイツの官僚制の「ブルジョア化」(フランス革命後のフランス)ないし「上からの近代化」(プロイセン・ドイツの場合)を促進しただけではなく、資本主義の発展が順調で市民社会の自律性が強く、そのため弱い国家しか必要としなかったイギリス、アメリカなどの国々においても、職業的官吏制度の形成、そして合理的で階統制的(ハイラーキカル)組織形態という意味での官僚制の成立を不可避にしたのである。

 しかもピラミッド型の合理的な組織形態という意味での官僚制は、たとえば中世のカトリック教会においてその先駆的形態がみられただけではなく、現代においては、国家のみならず、企業、政党、組合その他の大規模組織に共通にみいだされる特徴である。そしてこのような意味での近代―現代における官僚制化を独自の歴史的視角から理論化したのが後述するマックス・ウェーバーであった。

 ところで、さしあたって現代の国家に限定していっても、その行政組織の官僚制化は、古典的意味での官僚制、つまり行政官僚による政治支配をふたたび惹起(じゃっき)しがちであるという意味で、民主主義の政治原理との関係で深刻な問題を提起している。のみならず、官僚制的行政に特有の逆機能、つまり、技術的にもっとも優秀と想定されている官僚制の作動がかならずしもそうではなく、そこに組み込まれている人間の意識や行動が通常「官僚主義」とよばれているさまざまな「病理」現象を示すことが注目されるようになってきた。したがって今日における官僚制は、
(1)行政官僚による政治の支配=「官僚政治」、
(2)分業と協業の原理によって合理的に組み立てられた組織形態=「階統制」、
(3)それらに付随しがちな意識や行動=「官僚主義」
という三つの意味合いを含んでいるといえる。

[田口富久治]

ウェーバーの官僚制論

よく知られているようにウェーバーは、西欧のみに特有の「近代化」を「(目的)合理化」の過程とみ、その組織的表現形態を「官僚制(化)」としてとらえた。その官僚制論は彼の正統的支配の三類型のなかの合法的支配と結び付けられた理念型として展開されている。彼によれば、近代官僚制の特有の機能様式は、規則により体系化された権限の原則、階統制と審級制の原則、文書とスタッフに依拠する職務執行、行政幹部の公私の分離、専門的訓練を前提とする職務活動、職務の専任化、特殊な技術学(法律学、行政学、経営学)の習得などであり、このような官僚制機構は、理念的には、精確、迅速、明確、文書への精通、継続性、慎重性、統一性、厳格な服従関係、摩擦の防止、物的人的費用の節約などの点で、他のあらゆる行政形態と比べて純技術的に優れているとする。そして西欧における近代官僚制の出現を促した条件としては、
(1)貨幣経済の発展、
(2)行政事務の量的・質的発達、
(3)官僚制的組織の技術的優秀性、
(4)首長への行政手段の集中(行政官の行政手段からの分離)、
(5)社会的差別の水準化(大衆デモクラシーの出現)
をあげているが、とくに(4)(5)の条件に注目されたい。

 それではウェーバーは、彼の理念型としての近代官僚制に近い、市民革命ないし「上からのブルジョア化」をいちおう経たいわばブルジョア官僚制との対比において、絶対主義的官僚制(とその遺産)の特徴をどうとらえたのか。彼は後者を批判的に特徴づけるのに、「官僚制の家産制的性格」ないし「家産制的官僚制」という用語を用いており、この点がヒントになろう。つまり、国土と人民が首長の家産とみなされ、また官吏が契約によって任命されるのではなく、本質的には首長の私的使用人とみなされる場合には、そのような官吏団が、階統制的に編成され、即物的な権限をもって機能していようとも、そこには君主=国家への絶対的かつ無定量の忠誠(人格的服従義務)、階統制内部における「権威の序列化」と身分的支配、一般人民との関係における官吏身分の特権性と後見性原理など、18世紀末のプロイセン官僚制に典型的にみられたような特徴が現れるであろう(日本については後述)。

 ウェーバーの官僚制論でもう一つ注目すべき点がある。それは、官僚制を階級社会ないし資本主義に特有の現象とみなし、社会主義になれば官僚制は容易に人民の自己統治にとってかわられていき、さらに共産主義社会においては国家もしたがって官僚制も死滅するであろうとしていたマルクス主義者の楽観的展望とは対照的に、ウェーバーは逆に、社会主義になれば、資本主義においてみられるような国家官僚制と私的官僚制とのある程度の相互抑制も廃止されて、国家的官僚制が独裁的に威力を振るうであろうとする悲観的見通しを提示していたことである。この点については、またあとで触れる。

[田口富久治]

日本の官僚制

明治維新以降の日本の官僚制は、新生日本の対外独立(それは容易に対外侵出に転化していったが)を維持するための「近代化」=「富国強兵」「殖産興業」の担い手として、また自由民権運動などに対抗する天皇制的専制支配の中枢的権力機構として形成され発展していった。その特徴を統治機構、組織形態、行動様式の3側面から概観しよう。

 第一に、明治憲法下の統治機構において天皇主権下の外見的立憲主義が採用されたにもかかわらず、文武の官僚制は、枢密院、貴族院、元老・重臣などにもその勢力を扶植しつつ、権力中枢と重要な政策決定機能をほぼ独占するか、少なくともそこにおいてもっとも重要な地位を占めていた。その意味で、明治憲法下の日本の統治は、天皇制官僚集団による統治=官僚政治を基本的特色としていたといえよう。

 第二に、その組織形態をみると、統治機構レベルにおける多元的政治勢力による割拠性のみならず、行政機構レベルにおける各省中心のセクショナリズムが著しく、このような特徴は、敗戦に至るまで解消されることがなかった。その理由はいろいろあるが、実権をもたない天皇の権威を借りて、相争う藩閥諸勢力が統治機構を形成していったという歴史的事情に加えて、明治憲法下における統帥権の独立、枢密院設置、貴族院の強力な権限、議院内閣制の拒否、大臣の単独輔弼(ほひつ)責任制、国務大臣・行政大臣兼任制などが大きな影響を与えた。

 第三に、その行動様式上の特徴をみると、わが国における官僚制には、18世紀末のプロイセンのそれと比べてさえ、家産官僚制的色彩がより濃厚であるといえよう。すなわち、官僚制と民衆との関係においては、後見的支配、官・民差別観の公認がみられ、官僚制の内的関係においては、官吏の天皇および天皇の政府に対する人格的服従義務、権威の身分的序列化、官職と人格の未分離などがみられ、この両者の関係が相互に規定しあっていたのである。これらを総称して権威的支配の行動様式とよぶことができよう。もっとも戦前のわが国においても、官吏の任用にあたって公開試験制度が採用されていたが、それは「高文」(高等文官試験)制度にみられるように、特権的官吏団を学閥的に再生産する機能を担ったのである。

 第二次世界大戦後の日本においては、天皇の官吏は国民の公僕に転換し、また代議制の統治機構が採用されたために、法形式的には官僚政治の余地はなくなったが、新しい行政国家の台頭に伴って、民主主義と官僚制との関係がふたたび問われ、また戦前からの遺産と新しい行政国家的状況のアマルガム(混合)による官僚制のセクショナリズムや官僚主義の克服が課題となっている。

[田口富久治]

社会主義と官僚制

かつて社会主義国としてあったソ連や東欧諸国など、また現在も残存する中国や北朝鮮などの社会主義諸国をみる限り、そこでは官僚制は衰退しているどころか、ウェーバーも予測したようにむしろ拡大・強化さえしてきた。社会主義における官僚制の存続の根源を、資本主義の残滓(ざんし)やこれら諸国の後進性などに求める見解はもはや説得力をもたない。このような情勢のなかで、旧ソ連などの反体制理論家のなかからも、その根源を、そこにおける生産力の低位性と、なかんずく社会的分業において占める地位によって相対的に固定化された成層的構造に求める見解が現れていた。たとえばハンガリーのヘゲデューシュAndrás Hegedüs(1922― )は、官僚制的社会諸関係の本質を、社会の管理や統治を職業とする社会的カテゴリー(官僚)が直接生産者の利害と分離されたそれ独自の局部的利害をもつ点に求め、現存社会主義においてはその生産力水準、分業的階層化などに規定されて、そのような意味での官僚制の存在は不可避であるばかりか一定の積極的意義をもつことをも認め、それを不断に「人間化」し社会的統制に服せしめる必要=必然性を説いていた点で注目に値しよう。

[田口富久治]

『マックス・ウェーバー著、世良晃志郎訳『支配の社会学』全2巻(1962・創元社)』『M・アルブロウ著、君村昌訳『官僚制』(1974・福村出版)』『辻清明著『新版日本官僚制の研究』(1969・東京大学出版会)』『井出嘉憲著『日本官僚制と行政文化』(1982・東京大学出版会)』『西尾勝・村松岐夫編著『講座行政学』第1巻(1994・有斐閣)』『岡田彰著『現代日本官僚制の成立――戦後占領期における行政制度の再編成』(1994・法政大学出版局)』

[参照項目] | ウェーバー | 家産官僚制 | 家産制 | 官僚 | 官僚主義 | 近代化 | セクショナリズム | 大衆デモクラシー | ヒエラルヒー

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

<<:  Kanrin-in

>>:  Bureaucratic capital

Recommend

Pendentive (English spelling)

Architectural term. The spherical triangular parts...

Ursa Major (the Great Bear)

Abbreviation: UMa. A large constellation in the no...

Funaki, Azumigawa Town

…The Lake Upper Barrier was established at the mo...

caliga

…The dalmatic was also popular among women. Footw...

Rejected - Customer

It refers to the rejection of a party's deman...

Terrarium

…The need for large public gardens, or parks, for...

Twa

→Trans World Airlines [company] Source : Heibonsha...

Stiffness

… Stylus force is the pressure that the stylus ti...

Chilia

… [Prosperity during the reign of Archduke Stephe...

Alcohol-induced epilepsy

...The three most typical are delirium tremens, a...

Supérieur, Lac (English notation)SuperieurLac

…The area is close to the production areas of iro...

Changsha

A prefecture-level city along the lower reaches o...

Chevalier - Maurice Chevalier

French chanson singer and film actor. Born in Mén...

Fissile nuclide

A nuclide that undergoes nuclear fission with ther...

Wiggin, KD (English spelling) WigginKD

...Her realistic tendency finally led to the deve...