Classical Chinese - Kanbun

Japanese: 漢文 - かんぶん

A type of text. Texts written only in Chinese characters, i.e. Chinese texts. However, since Japan did not have its own characters in ancient times, it borrowed Chinese characters to express its own language, but since Japanese has a different linguistic system from Chinese, it has used Chinese characters in a different way than in China. Ancient Man'yōgana texts, which used the sounds of Chinese characters to write Japanese, and later variant Chinese texts and kobun texts, which were written according to different meanings and uses of Chinese characters than in China, are not usually included in classical Chinese texts.

[Shosuke Ozone]

Ancient and medieval Chinese classics

Since ancient times, Japan has imported Chinese cultural institutions and cultural artifacts and has endeavored to develop its own culture, so it was necessary not only to understand classical Chinese but also to write it. The admiration for Chinese culture led to respect for classical Chinese, and for a long time, writing formal documents in classical Chinese dominated the world. In ancient times, the use of Chinese characters was limited to the records of historians, who were thought to have been mainly immigrants from China and Korea. The oldest surviving documents date back to the time of Empress Suiko, and Prince Shotoku's Seventeen-Article Constitution and the Iyo Onsen Monument show attention to embellishment, even though they are written in classical Japanese. After the Taika Reforms, the system was gradually improved and many Chinese books were published, and in the Nara period, the Benrei style of writing, which was popular from the Six Dynasties to the early Tang Dynasty, had a great influence. Various styles (types of writing) such as imperial edicts, prefaces to poems, denominational anthologies, and fu appeared, centering on the representative classical Chinese texts, the Ryō and the Nihon Shoki. It was during this period that kanji characters were read according to their Japanese readings, and Chinese classics were read in Japanese word order, a style that continued for a long time to come. In the Heian period, keibun reached its peak, and a sense of beauty in literature that valued elegant expression swept the literary world. Writing at the time had a set format depending on the style, and since the content of each work was more or less the same, people evaluated works based on the skill of their couplets. This trend gave rise to anthologies of excellent verse such as the Wakan Roeishu, and led to the compilation of masterpieces such as Honcho Monzui. Meanwhile, writing etiquette books such as Sakumon Daitai, which followed on from Kukai's Bunkyo Hifuron, a collection of essays on Chinese poetry and prose, discussed the types and phrasing of couplets. From the late Heian to the Kamakura period, monks compiled confessions and prayers, but the writings were written in a style that was strongly influenced by Japanese customs. In addition, writing guidebooks such as "Otaku Fukatsusho" and "Bunpitsu Mondosho" and anthologies of phrases and idioms such as "Bunposho" appeared.

From the end of the Kamakura period to the Muromachi period, the center of culture shifted from the nobility to the Zen temples, and in the world of writing, the movement to revive classical Japanese that had occurred in the mid-Tang Dynasty was carried forward, rejecting the use of prose texts and starting to write prose texts. However, the Zen temples required 4-6 style writing for official writing, and after the Yuan Dynasty's Shoin Taiki's "Hoshitsushu" was brought to the country, many master writers followed it as a model, books on the use of 4-6 style writing were written, and lectures were given on "Hoshitsushu." However, the 4-6 style writing of the Zen temples was limited to official writing, and was completely different from the traditional 4-6 style writing in that it had strict rules and emphasized vocal rhythm.

[Shosuke Ozone]

Early Modern Chinese Literature

In the Edo period, coupled with the rise of Neo-Confucianism, the view that writing is subordinate to morality was believed, and the ancient Chinese literature of the pre-Qin dynasty was regarded as the teacher. Many grammar books appeared, including Fujiwara Seika's Bunsho Tattoku Koryo, which was based on Chinese writing theory, but these were treatises on the form and types of writing, and are thought to have been influenced by the lectures and explanations in Kobun Shinpo, Bunsho Bentai, and Buntai Meiben, which were in circulation at the time. However, the writing of Confucian scholars in the early Edo period could not escape the Japanese flavor (a unique Japanese tendency), and had many defects. Ogyu Sorai rejected the traditional Japanese reading method, advocated the study of Chinese, and advocated the study of classical Chinese literature, discarding writings from the Song dynasty onwards. He valued rhetoric in writing, and advocated the use of imitation of classical phrases to avoid a Japanese flavor, and practiced it himself. This theory was all the rage at the time, but because imitation plagiarism caused great harm, it was attacked by many scholars. Yamamoto Hokuzan, Nakai Chikuzan, and Minagawa Kien denied Sorai's theory, and advocated getting closer to Chinese writing by reading classical Chinese thoroughly and practicing fubun (translating Chinese writing into Japanese characters and restoring it to the original text). However, no new theory of writing was established, and a moralistic view of writing once again dominated academic circles. However, respect for spirit and the cultivation of one's character were valued in composition, and the display of individuality was emphasized. As a result, the Japanese influence was removed, and renowned writers such as Saito Setsudo and Rai Sanyo emerged, ushering in the heyday of classical Chinese. However, as Western culture began to spread with the Meiji Restoration, classical Chinese gradually declined and was lost.

[Shosuke Ozone]

[Reference] | Chinese literature | Kundoku

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

文章の一つ。漢字のみでつづった文章、すなわち中国の文章をいう。ただし日本では古来固有の文字をもたなかったので、中国の文字を借りて自分の言語を表現したが、日本語は中国語と言語体系を異にするので、中国と異なる漢字の使用法が生まれた。日本語を表記するために漢字音を用いた上代の万葉仮名の文章や、中国と異なる漢字の意義用法に従ってつづった後世の変体漢文や候文などは、通常漢文のなかには含まない。

［大曽根章介］

古代・中世の漢文

わが国は古代から中国の制度文物を輸入して自国の文化の発展に努力してきたので、漢文の理解だけでなくその作成が要求され、中国文化への崇拝の念が漢文に対する尊敬となり、長い間正式の文章を漢文で書くことが天下を支配した。古代では漢字の使用が史官の記録に限られ、彼らは中国・朝鮮からの渡来人が中心をなしていたと思われる。現存最古の文章は推古(すいこ)天皇時代のもので、聖徳太子の『十七条憲法』や「伊予温泉碑文」などには古文ながら文章の修飾への留意がみられる。大化改新後しだいに制度も整備し多くの漢籍が将来され、奈良時代には六朝(りくちょう)から初唐にかけて流行した駢儷(べんれい)文が大きな影響を与えた。漢文の代表である「令(りょう)」と『日本書紀』を中心に、詔勅、詩序、伝、賦など種々の文体（文章の種類）が出現した。そしてこの時代に漢字を和訓によって読み、漢文を日本語の語順に従って読み連ねる訓読が行われるようになり、以後長い間継承されていく。平安時代になると駢儷文は頂点に達し、華麗な表現を尊ぶ美文意識が文壇を席捲(せっけん)した。当時の文章は文体によって一定の形式があり、どの作品も内容が大同小異であるので、人々は対句の巧拙によって作品を評価した。このような風潮から『和漢朗詠集』をはじめとする秀句選が生まれ、『本朝文粋(もんずい)』のような名文の編纂(へんさん)が行われた。一方、中国の詩文論を集めた空海の『文鏡秘府論(ぶんきょうひふろん)』を継いで、『作文大体(さくもんだいたい)』などの文章作法書に対句の種類や句型が論じられた。平安後期から鎌倉時代にかけて僧侶(そうりょ)の手で表白、願文(がんもん)の類纂が行われたが、その文章は和習（日本的な習癖）の強い駢儷体で終始している。また『王沢不渇鈔(おうたくふかつしょう)』や『文筆問答鈔(ぶんぴつもんどうしょう)』のような作文指南書や『文鳳抄(ぶんぽうしょう)』のような詞句熟語集が出現した。

　鎌倉末期から室町時代になると文化の中心が貴族から禅林に移行し、文章の世界においては中唐におこった古文復興運動が将来され、駢儷文が否定されて散文の文章が書かれた。しかし禅林の公的文章には四六文が必要であり、元(げん)の笑隠大訢(しょういんたいき)の『蒲室集(ほしつしゅう)』がもたらされてからは、それを手本にして名文家が輩出し、また四六文の作法書が書かれ、『蒲室集』の講義が行われた。ただ禅林の四六文は公的な文章に限定され、規則が厳格で声律が重視されるなど、従来の駢儷文とはまったく異なる。

［大曽根章介］

近世の漢文

江戸時代になると、朱子学の隆盛と相まって文章は道徳に従属するという文章観が信奉され、先秦(せんしん)の古文が師とされた。中国の文章論に基づく藤原惺窩(ふじわらせいか)の『文章達徳綱領(ぶんしょうたっとくこうりょう)』以下多くの文法書が出現したが、これらは文章の体段と種類についての論で、当時流布した『古文真宝』の講説鈔解(しょうかい)や『文章弁体』『文体明弁(めいべん)』の影響によるものと思われる。ただ江戸初期の儒者の文章は和臭（日本的な特殊な傾向）を免れず、欠点が多かった。荻生徂徠(おぎゅうそらい)は従来の和訓顛倒(てんとう)の読み方を拒絶し、中国語の履修を説くとともに古文辞学を提唱して、宋(そう)以後の文章を廃した。彼は文章の修辞を尊び、和臭を避けるために古典の辞句の模擬転用を説き、自ら実践した。この説は一世を風靡(ふうび)したが、模擬剽窃(ひょうせつ)が大きな弊害を生んだため、多くの学者によって攻撃された。山本北山(やまもとほくざん)、中井竹山(なかいちくざん)、皆川淇園(みながわきえん)らは徂徠の説を否定し、漢文の熟読と覆文（漢人の文章を国字に直しふたたび原文に復すること）の訓練によって中国人の文章に近づくことを説いた。しかし新しい文章論は樹立されず、ふたたび道徳的文章観が学界を支配した。ただ作文に気魄(きはく)の尊重と人格の陶冶(とうや)が尊重され、個性の発揮が強調された。そのため和臭が除去されて、斎藤拙堂(せつどう)、頼山陽(らいさんよう)などの名文家が輩出し漢文の全盛時代を迎えた。だが明治維新により西欧文化が浸透するにつれて、漢文はしだいに衰退滅亡していった。

［大曽根章介］

[参照項目] | 漢文学 | 訓読

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

<<: Kampung (English spelling)

>>: Kanpu Ferry - Kanpurenrakusen