Custom - Kanshu (English spelling)

Japanese: 慣習 - かんしゅう(英語表記)custom
Custom - Kanshu (English spelling)

A certain pattern of behavior repeated by an individual in a certain situation is called a habit, whereas a custom is a habitual pattern of behavior widely repeated in a society. When classifying social norms into three types, along with mores and laws, customs are a general term for behaviors in which the value principles and sanctions (social sanctions) associated with the pattern of behavior are not as established as mores, and of course are not as organized as laws. Sumner and M. Weber shared the idea of ​​characterizing customs in this way, but there is not just one standard for this distinction, but multiple standards, and in actual everyday language there is a lot of miscellaneous usage, so the content of customs is complex. For example, in legal hermeneutics, laws are limited to national norms and customs are not laws, but in legal sociology and legal anthropology, like Malinowski, customs are distinguished between legal and non-legal ones. The distinction between customs and mores is more diverse and rather unclear. However, it is possible to distinguish customs from mores and laws as long as it is relatively generalized.

There are many actual forms and types of customs in this sense, and therefore, depending on where the focus of observation is placed, there are various forms and names. For example, if we focus on the characteristics or peculiarities of external behavioral patterns, it is called a custom; if we consider it to be a general custom and also focus on the basic patterns of food, clothing, and shelter, it is called a manners; if we consider that there is a psychological habit to these, it is called a custom; and if it is localized and relatively short-lived, it is called a fashion. Also, if we place emphasis on the inner aspects and talk about the tendency of ways of thinking or values, it is called a trend. Among customs, those that have a special opportunity to act are called conventions. Events are one type of such customs, but since they have a strong meaning of social community and publicness, they belong to mores. Traditions are a type of mores because they approve of values ​​that are passed down, but those that deny traditional value are called conventions and belong to customs.

Since customs are originally a social accumulation of individual habits formed unconsciously, they tend to function in relatively small societies that stably transmit unique cultures, and conceptual and purposeful reflection and organization are rarely consciously added to them. In that sense, they are unavoidably conservative in nature and can be an obstacle to the expansion and development of society and to progressive reform. In such cases, ethical or religious social norms that consciously seek to protect specific value principles and legal norms that set national goals ignore or reject them as immature and rather obstructive social norms. However, it is common knowledge that ethics, religions, and laws that cannot be in harmony with customs are ineffective. Since customs are generated unconsciously, on the one hand they hinder conscious development and progress, but on the other hand, as an expression of the energy contained in human life, they are also a source of power to correct and overcome value systems and institutions that have reached their limits in society.

[Masashi Chiba]

"Modern Sociology 3: Folkways" by W. G. Sumner, translated by Kiyotaka Aoyagi, Kyoichi Sonoda, and Eiji Yamamoto (1975, Aoki Shoten)

[Reference items] | Norms | Law | Mores

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一定状況において個人が繰り返す特定の行動様式が習慣といわれるが、これに対して一社会に広く繰り返し行われる習慣的行動様式が慣習である。慣習は、モーレスおよび法と並べて社会規範を3種に分類する場合、行動様式に伴う価値原理とサンクション(社会的制裁)がモーレスほど確立しておらず、またもちろん法ほど組織化されていないものを総称する。慣習をこのように性格づけたのはサムナーとM・ウェーバーに共通する考え方だが、この区別においても基準は一つではなく複数あり、また実際の日常用語には雑多な使用法が多いので、慣習の内容は複雑である。たとえば、法解釈学では法を国家的規範に限って慣習を法にあらずとするが、法社会学、法人類学ではマリノフスキーのように慣習のなかに法的なものとそうでないものとを区別する。慣習とモーレスとの区別は、いっそう多様むしろ不鮮明である。だが比較的に概括する限り、慣習をモーレスおよび法から区別することは可能である。

 この意味の慣習にも実際の態様、種類は多く、したがって観察の重点をどこに置くかによって、形態と呼称にはさまざまのものがある。たとえば、外面的な行動様式の特徴ないし特殊性に着目すれば慣行といわれ、それを一般的風俗とみて、しかも衣食住の基本的様式性に着目すると習俗、それらに心理的な慣れがあることを考慮すると風習、そしてその局部的で期間の比較的短いものは流行といわれる。また内心面を重視し、ものの考え方ないし価値観の傾向性をいうと風潮になる。慣行のうちでも行動の機会が特殊的であるものはむしろ慣例とよばれる。行事はそのような慣例の一種だが、社会の共同性、公共性の意味が強いので、むしろモーレスに属することになる。伝統は伝承される価値を是認するものであるからモーレスの一種だが、伝承的価値を否認されたものは因襲といわれ慣習に属する。

 慣習は、もともと無自覚的に形成される個人習慣の社会的集積であるから、固有文化を安定的に伝えている比較的小さい社会で機能することが多く、概念的、合目的的な反省や組織化が意識して加えられることが少ない。その意味では、保守的性格を免れがたく、社会が拡大発展し進歩改革を図るには障害となることがある。そのような場合には、特殊な価値原理を意識的に護持しようとする倫理的ないし宗教的社会規範や国家目的を掲げる法規範からは、未熟でむしろ妨害的な社会規範として無視あるいは拒否される。しかし事実として、慣習と同調できない倫理、宗教、法律が実効性を欠くことは常識である。慣習は無自覚的に生成するだけに、一方では自覚的な発展や進歩を妨害するとともに、他方では人間の生が内包するエネルギーの表現形態として、社会で限界に逢着(ほうちゃく)した価値体系や制度を修正、超克する力の源泉でもある。

[千葉正士]

『W・G・サムナー著、青柳清孝・園田恭一・山本英治訳『現代社会学体系3 フォークウェイズ』(1975・青木書店)』

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