Eunuch - Kangan

Japanese: 宦官 - かんがん

In ancient and medieval eastern and western countries, the term refers to castrated men who served the royal court or nobility. Its origins are unclear, but it is said that they already existed in the ancient Orient, and that the captain of the Egyptian royal guard during the time of Cleopatra (reigned 51-30 BC) was a eunuch. They were often used as harem administrators during the Islamic period as well, and it is said that many eunuchs were used to control harems during the Ottoman Empire. In polygamous harems, androgynous men were probably needed to maintain order and keep secrets. This tradition spread from Western Asia to the East and West, spreading to Greece and Rome, and it is said that there were several thousand of them in the Mughal Empire in India.

Eunuchs are a particular problem in China, where they had a major influence on politics, as a Qing dynasty historian states, because their secret activities in the imperial court influenced the politics of the dynasty, and it is fair to say that the three dynasties of the Later Han, Tang, and Ming were all destroyed by the eunuchs.

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Chinese Eunuch

In China, eunuchs' existence during the reign of Wu Ding of the Yin dynasty (around 1300 B.C.) is confirmed by oracle bone inscriptions, so they are likely to have existed before that time. Eunuchs were also called Enjin, Jijin, Jingshen, Zhongguan, Diaoshu, Eunuchs, Neiju, Takujin, and Hoja, and appeared in and out of the harems of successive dynasties throughout history. Even after their abolition during the Republic of China era, it is said that 470 eunuchs were still living in the Forbidden City when Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing dynasty, left the city in 1924.

Originally, many eunuchs were people who had been executed by castration, but after castration was abolished in the Sui dynasty, eunuchs included prisoners of war during the conquest of other tribes, foreign tributes (especially from Goryeo, Annam, etc.), criminals who were executed by castration as special cases, and poor people who had castrated themselves or their children (self-castration). In the Yuan dynasty, there were many foreigners, and in the Ming and Qing dynasties, there were many foreigners and self-castrations, with many foreigners being Koreans and Chinese from the Hejian Prefecture of Zhili. Of all the dynasties, the Ming dynasty had the most, and when they recruited 300 replacements in 1621, there were 20,000 applicants, so they were forced to hire 450 people with the intention of helping the poor.

When recruiting, after physical examinations, candidates were selected based on criteria such as youth, good looks, graceful behavior, clear speech, and intelligence. After recruitment, the right people were placed in the right positions, but those who were not recruited had no choice but to live in seclusion in their hometowns. In Henan Prefecture, for example, some became desperate and formed bands to commit crimes such as robbery. As a countermeasure, they were detained and forced to do serf-like work, while the eunuchs were strictly prohibited from holding court. However, the eunuchs were attractive to them as a way for the poor to advance in their careers, and they continued to exist. Although eunuchs were originally slaves to the imperial court and nobility, they were close aides to the monarch and prince, and performed menial tasks. Moreover, because they were intelligent and beautiful, when they gained the trust and favor of their masters, they often had access to their secrets. This was where powerful ministers often engaged in secret affairs, and eunuchs could play an active role behind the scenes of politics whenever they wanted.

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Spring and Autumn Period - Warring States Period - Han Period

Already during the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, during the reign of Duke Huan of Qi (reigned 685-643 BC), Shu Di became a eunuch himself, controlled the harem, and gained Duke Huan's trust. However, after Duke Huan's death, he rebelled, plunging Qi into crisis, and Duke Wen of Jin (reigned 636-628 BC) also placed great importance on the eunuch Bodi. During the Qin dynasty, the great prime minister Shang Yang also gained his position through the recommendation of the eunuch Jingjian, and during the reign of Emperor II (reigned 220-207 BC), the eunuch Zhao Gao fought for power and killed the prime minister Li Si, then assassinated the emperor himself, causing the downfall of the Qin dynasty. Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty (reigned 141-87 BC) was famous for punishing his subjects severely, and Sima Qian, author of the Records of the Grand Historian, was also executed in the palace and later became the Secretary of the Central Secretariat, serving as a secretary to the emperor. In the Later Han dynasty, after Emperor Zhang (reigned 75-88), there were many young emperors, and their mothers, the empress dowagers, often ran the government. The Empress Dowager did not have direct contact with the ministers, but instead used the eunuchs as intermediaries, and as many of these eunuchs were well versed in the intricacies of politics, some gradually gained power and eventually came to compete for power with the in-laws. For example, Emperor He (reigned 88-105), who was troubled by the tyranny of the in-laws of the Dou Xian family, conspired with the eunuch Zheng Zhong to overthrow them, and was rewarded for his achievements by making him one of the feudal lords. Later, Emperor An (reigned 106-125) used the eunuch Jiang Jing to oust the Zheng family. After the death of Emperor Shao (reigned 125), the eunuch Sun Cheng and others executed Yan Xian and installed Emperor Shun (reigned 125-144), and the emperor ranked 19 eunuchs, including the Sun clan, as feudal lords. Furthermore, during the reign of Emperor Huan (reigned 146-167), the emperor's in-laws, Liang Ji, produced 57 members, including seven marquises, three empresses, and three great generals, and was powerful enough to overwhelm the emperor's power, so the emperor conspired with the eunuch Shan Chao and others to eliminate the Liang clan. From then on, the power of the eunuchs overpowered the power of the in-laws, wielding power as they pleased and controlling politics. In response, the so-called moral men fought against the eunuchs, but they were thoroughly suppressed by the Touko Prison, so the tyranny of the eunuchs became even stronger, and although they were finally suppressed by force by Yuan Shao, the Later Han dynasty also fell at the same time. During the Three Kingdoms and Northern and Southern Dynasties period, the power of the aristocrats was strong in the Southern Dynasty and the eunuchs did not wield any influence, but in the Northern Wei dynasty, the empress dowager often held power, so the power of the eunuchs was also strong, and some even killed the Son of Heaven.

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Tang Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty

The Tang Dynasty, succeeding the Northern Dynasties, saw the power of the eunuchs grow stronger, and gradually became a period of tyranny not inferior to that of the Later Han Dynasty. Many of these eunuchs were of foreign origin, and they began to stand out from the time of Empress Wu Zetian (reigned 690-705). During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (reigned 712-756), the lavish court life saw many eunuchs, including Gao Lishi, being highly valued, with over 1,000 of them of third rank or higher, and as many as 3,000 of them of seventh rank or higher. As the eunuchs became aristocrats, they colluded with princesses and high-ranking officials, actively accepting bribes and annexing land, while some even became officials in the position of Shihakushi, where they accumulated wealth. During the reign of Emperor Suzong (reigned 756-762), after their involvement in the campaign against An Qingxu, they also gained military power, sometimes even exercising more power than the military governors. Upon the death of Sukjong, the eunuch Li Fuguo (Ri Hokoku), who was hated by the empress, killed her instead and installed King Dai (Daijong). From then on, Fuguo took over the government in place of Daijong (reigned 762-779), and Daijong followed him, calling him Shangfu. Daijong eventually had the group assassinated, but they did not die out, and under the reign of Dezong (reigned 779-805), he was forced to give the eunuchs more importance again, and their power doubled, and the next emperor, Xianzong (reigned 805-820), was poisoned to death by them. After this, the eunuchs were free to depose and abolish emperors, and of the eight emperors from Muzong (reigned 820-824) to Zhaozong (reigned 888-904), all except Jingzong (reigned 824-826) were supported by them, and Jingzong also fell into their clutches. At that time, there was a popular song about "the state elders who were determined to succeed him, and the disciples who produced the emperors," and the relationship between the eunuchs and the emperors was that of examiners and the emperors were the students. Emperor Wenzong (reigned 826-840) conspired with Prime Minister Li Xun and others to falsely claim that nectar had fallen in the Rear Garden, and invited the eunuch Qiu Shiliang to view it, hoping to take advantage of the false pretense and wipe them out, but the plan was leaked and counterattacked (the Ganlu Incident), which failed. Emperor Xuanzong (r. 846-859) also tried to eliminate the harm with the help of his prime minister Hu Sui, but was unsuccessful. Finally, Emperor Zhaozong invited the military governor Zhu Wen to remove the eunuchs by force, but was soon killed by Zhu Wen himself, and the Tang dynasty came to an end.

During the Song dynasty, the rise of the eunuchs was suppressed, so only Tong Guan at the end of the Northern Song dynasty and Dong Songchen at the end of the Southern Song dynasty were prominent. During the Yuan dynasty, there were also eunuchs from Goryeo, Jurchen, and Annam, but the power of the kings and princes was generally strong, and they had little opportunity to flourish.

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Ming and Qing

During the Ming Dynasty, they wielded as much power as the Later Han and Tang Dynasties. At first, Emperor Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang (reigned 1368-98) strictly controlled the number of eunuchs, limiting their number to 100 or less. To prevent the eunuchs from leaking the contents of imperial edicts and commentaries, Emperor Taizu forbade them from learning to read and write, and made it punishable by death if they were involved in politics. However, during the reign of the second emperor, Jianwen (reigned 1398-1402), when Yan King Di (Yongle Emperor) rebelled and caused the Jingnan Rebellion, Yan King managed to get the Jianwen emperor's eunuchs, who were dissatisfied with the oppression, to collude and report the situation of the enemy, which led to victory for Yan King. After Yongle Emperor (reigned 1402-24) ascended to the throne, the power of the eunuchs grew stronger, and many of them were highly valued, especially when the emperor was incompetent. They were based in the 24 Yamen (offices) in the palace, and the Sili Eunuchs in particular wielded more power than the cabinet, controlling the actions of the bureaucrats by controlling the secret police such as the Eastern and Western Arsenals, and also controlling military power under the name of military inspector, participating in military dispatches, and acting as tax envoys in the provinces, interfering heavily in civil affairs.

During the reign of Emperor Yongle, the eunuch Zheng He led a large fleet and invaded the countries of the South China Sea seven times, but Zheng He accomplished his historical mission well, which was an exception, and eunuchs often caused destabilization of the government. Emperor Zhengtong (reigned 1435-49) trusted the eunuch Wang Zhen to personally invade the Oirats, only to be defeated and captured at Tumubo (the Tumu Incident), bringing the Ming Dynasty to the brink of collapse. During the reign of Emperor Zhengde (reigned 1505-21), the eunuch Liu Jin ran politics both domestically and internationally in place of an emperor who lacked the qualities to be a ruler, but this led to rebellions by King Anhua and King Ning, and was saved by Wang Shouren's strategy. These were great evil deeds. Moreover, Wang Zhen's family property alone was confiscated, amounting to over 60 safes and silver vaults, and over 20 coral trees measuring 6-7 feet in height, while Liu Jin's property amounted to 2.5 million taels of gold and 50 million taels of silver, proving that they had repeatedly accepted bribes. However, since the emperor's dictatorial power was firmly established in the Ming dynasty, if they lost the emperor's trust, they too would fall from grace immediately. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, during the reign of Emperor Tianqi (reigned 1620-27), the eunuch Wei Zhongxian had an affair with the emperor's wet nurse, gained control of both the military and civil power, and joined the intensifying party strife. He was so powerful that shrines to him were built all over the country, but when Emperor Chongzhen (reigned 1627-44) ascended to the throne, he was not trusted, and his faction was quickly wiped out.

The Qing dynasty learned from the evils of the Ming dynasty and paid close attention to the eunuchs, so they caused relatively few problems. However, towards the end of the dynasty, under the reign of Empress Dowager Cixi, eunuchs Andehai and Li Lianying were involved in politics, but after the Classical scholar Sun Yirang and others advocated the complete abolition of eunuchs, their influence was restricted to the harem, and they were officially abolished with the fall of the Qing dynasty. However, some of them continued to exist until the 1910s of the Republic of China.

Furthermore, Korea, Annam and other countries not only paid tribute to China but also employed eunuchs in their own courts, which can be seen as a spread from China; however, Japan did not follow this example, and therefore there are no eunuchs in our country.

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"The Chinese Eunuchs" (included in the Complete Works of Kuwabara Jyutaka, Volume 1, 1968, Iwanami Shoten) ▽ "The Eunuchs by Mitamura Taisuke (Chuko Shinsho)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

古代、中世の東西各国で、宮廷や貴族に仕えた去勢された男子をいう。その起源は明らかではないが、古代オリエントにはすでに存在し、クレオパトラ（在位前51～前30）時代のエジプトの近衛(このえ)隊長は宦官であったといわれる。イスラム時代にもハレムの管理者として用いられたことが多く、オスマン帝国時代にもハレムの統制に多数の宦官が用いられたと伝えられている。一夫多妻制の後宮では、秩序を保ち、秘密を守るため、中性的男子を必要としたのであろう。これが西アジアから東西に伝わり、ギリシア、ローマに波及し、インドのムガル帝国では数千人を抱えていたという。

　宦官がとくに問題とされるのは中国である。清(しん)代の歴史家が、宦官の宮廷内での暗躍が王朝の政治を左右し、なかでも後漢(ごかん)、唐、明(みん)の3朝は宦官によって滅ぼされたとみてよいと述べているように、政治上に大きな影響を与えたからである。

［星　斌夫］

中国の宦官

中国では、殷(いん)の武丁(ぶてい)（前1300ころ）のときに存在していたことが、甲骨文字で確かめられるので、おそらくそれ以前から実在していたと思われる。宦官は、奄（閹）人(えんじん)、寺人(じじん)、浄身、中官、貂璫(ちょうとう)、太監(たいかん)、内豎(ないじゅ)、椓人(たくじん)、火者(ホージャ)ともいわれ、歴代王朝の後宮にあって歴史上に見え隠れし、中華民国時代に廃止されてからも、清の最後の皇帝溥儀(ふぎ)が、その13年（1924）紫禁(しきん)城を退去するときに、なお470人が住んでいたという。

　宦官には、もともと宮刑に処せられた者が多いが、隋(ずい)代に宮刑が廃されてからは、異民族征服の際の俘虜(ふりょ)、外国からの進貢（とくに高麗(こうらい)、安南などからの）者、特例として宮刑に処せられた罪人、貧民の自身またはその子の去勢した（自宮）者などが宦官となった。元(げん)代では外人、明・清代では外人および自宮者が多く、外人は朝鮮人、中国人は直隷(ちょくれい)河間府の出身が多い。歴代王朝のうち明代がもっとも多く、1621年に300人の補欠を募集した際、2万人の応募があったので、やむなく貧民救済の意を込めて450人を採用したほどである。

　採用の際は、身体を検査したうえで、若くて容姿が優れ、挙措動作が優雅、言語も明晰(めいせき)で利発であるなどを基準に選んだ。採用後は適材を適所に配置するが、不採用者は、郷里に蟄居(ちっきょ)するよりほかはなく、河南府などでは、自暴自棄となり、隊を組んで略奪などの罪を重ねる者が現れた。その対策として、彼らを収容して農奴的作業に従わせる一方、自宮を厳しく禁止した。しかし、自宮は、貧民の栄達の方法として彼らにとって魅力があり、絶えることがなかった。宦官は、もとより宮廷、貴族の奴隷ではあるが、君主、王公の側近にあり雑事に従い、しかも才色兼備の利発者なので、主人の信用を得、寵(ちょう)を受けると、その秘密に通ずることが多かった。そこで権臣が密通してくることも多く、宦官はその気があればいつでも政治の裏側で活躍することができた。

［星　斌夫］

春秋戦国～漢

すでに春秋戦国時代、斉(せい)の桓公(かんこう)（在位前685～前643）のとき、豎刁(じゅちょう)は自宮して宦官となり、後宮を統制して桓公の信用を得たが、桓公の死後、反乱を起こして斉を危機に陥れ、晋(しん)の文公（在位前636～前628）も宦官勃鞮(ぼってい)を重用した。秦(しん)代では、偉大な宰相といわれる商鞅(しょうおう)も、宦官景監(けいかん)の推挙でその地位を得たのであり、二世皇帝（在位前220～前207）のとき、宦官趙高(ちょうこう)は権力を争って宰相李斯(りし)を殺し、さらに皇帝をも弑(しい)して、秦の滅亡の原因をつくった。漢の武帝（在位前141～前87）は臣下を厳罰にしたことで有名であるが、『史記』の著者司馬遷(しばせん)も、宮刑を受け、のちに中書令となって天子側近の秘書役を務めた。後漢では、章帝（在位75～88）以後、幼帝が多く、母の太后が政治を行うことが多かった。太后は大臣と直接には接触せず、宦官を仲介にたてたために、宦官は政治の機微に通ずる者が少なくなく、しだいに権力を握る者も出て、ついに外戚(がいせき)と勢力を争った。たとえば、外戚竇憲(とうけん)一族の専横に悩んだ和帝（在位88～105）は、宦官鄭衆(ていしゅう)と共謀して倒し、その功を賞して諸侯に列し、のちに安帝（在位106～125）は、宦官江京(こうけい)を用いて鄭氏を退けた。また少帝（在位125）の死後、宦官孫程(そんてい)らは閻顕(えんけん)を誅(ちゅう)して順帝（在位125～144）を擁立し、帝は孫氏ら19人の宦官を諸侯に列した。さらに桓帝(かんてい)（在位146～167）のとき、外戚梁冀(りょうき)が、一族より七侯、三后、三大将軍など57人を出して帝威をしのぐ勢いであったので、帝は宦官単超(ぜんちょう)らと謀って梁氏を族滅した。以後、宦官の勢力が外戚の勢威を圧して権力をほしいままにし、政治を左右した。これに対し、いわゆる気節の士が宦官と争ったが、党錮(とうこ)の獄によって徹底的に弾圧されたので、宦官の暴政はさらに強まり、最後に袁紹(えんしょう)によって武力鎮圧されはしたものの、同時に後漢も滅亡した。三国・南北朝時代のころは、南朝などでは貴族の勢力が強く、宦官の威を振るうこともなかったが、北魏(ほくぎ)では太后がしばしば権力を握ったので、宦官の勢いも強く、天子を殺す者も現れた。

［星　斌夫］

唐～元

唐代は、北朝の後を受けて宦官の勢力が強く、しだいに後漢に劣らぬ専横期となった。その宦官には異民族の出が少なくなく、則天武后（在位690～705）のころから目だち始め、玄宗（在位712～756）のとき、豪華な宮廷生活に伴い、高力士(こうりきし)ら多くの宦官を重用し、三品以上の者も1000余人、七品以上では3000人にも及んだ。やがて宦官が貴族化するにつれて公主、高官らと結託し、盛んに収賄して土地を兼併する一方、市舶司(しはくし)の官にもついて財を蓄える者も出た。粛宗(しゅくそう)（在位756～762）のとき、安慶緒の討伐に関与してから、彼らは軍権をも手中にし、ときには節度使に勝る力をもった。粛宗の死に際し、皇后に憎まれた宦官李輔国(りほこく)は、かえって皇后を殺して代王（代宗）を擁立した。以後、輔国は代宗（在位762～779）にかわって自ら政治をとり、代宗も尚父とよんでこれに従った。やがて代宗は彼ら一味を暗殺させたが、その根を絶やせず、徳宗（在位779～805）のとき、ふたたび宦官を重用することを余儀なくされると、その専権は旧に倍し、次の憲宗（在位805～820）は彼らに毒殺された。こののち、天子の廃立は宦官らの意のままになり、次の穆宗(ぼくそう)（在位820～824）から昭宗（在位888～904）に至る8代の天子のうち、敬宗（在位824～826）以外はすべて彼らに擁立され、敬宗もその毒牙(どくが)にかかっている。そのころ「定策国老、門生天子」の俗謡があり、宦官は試験官、天子は受験生の関係のようにみられていた。文宗（在位826～840）は宰相李訓らと謀り、後苑(こうえん)に甘露が降ったと偽り、宦官仇士良(きゅうしりょう)をその観賞に誘い、虚に乗じて彼らを一掃しようとしたが、その計画が漏れて反撃されて（甘露の変）失敗した。宣宗（在位846～859）はまた宰相狐綯(ことう)とともにその害を除こうとしたが成功せず、昭宗はついに節度使朱温を招いて宦官を武力で排除したが、まもなく自身も朱温に殺されて、唐は滅んだ。

　宋(そう)代には、宦官の台頭を抑えたので、北宋末に童貫(どうかん)、南宋末に董宋臣(とうそうしん)らの専権が目だつだけである。元代には、高麗、女真(じょしん)、安南出身の宦官も存在したが、一般に王公の勢力が強く、彼らのはびこる機会は少なかった。

［星　斌夫］

明・清

明代には、後漢、唐に劣らぬ勢力を振るった。初め、太祖朱元璋(しゅげんしょう)（在位1368～98）は宦官を厳しく規制し、その数も100人以下とした。詔勅や奏疏(そうそ)を取り次ぐ彼らに、その内容が漏れないように、文字の学習を禁じ、もし政治に関与すれば死罪に処するなど、太祖は対策に留意した。しかし2代目建文帝（在位1398～1402）のとき、燕王棣(えんおうてい)（永楽帝）が反乱して靖難(せいなん)の変が起こると、燕王は、抑圧に不満の建文帝側の宦官を内応させ、敵情を報告させて勝利を収めたので、永楽帝（在位1402～24）の即位後は宦官の勢力は強くなり、重用される者が続出し、とくに無能の天子のときは、その権勢をほしいままにした。彼らは宮廷に置かれた24衙門(がもん)を本拠とし、なかでも司礼太監は内閣よりも強い権力を振るい、東廠(とうしょう)・西廠など秘密警察の実権を握って官僚の動向を左右したほか、監軍の名のもとに軍権をも掌握して出兵に関与し、地方には税使となって民政にも強く干渉した。

　永楽帝のとき、宦官鄭和(ていわ)に大船団を率いさせ、前後7回、南海諸国を経略させたが、鄭和がよくその歴史的使命を果たしたことなどは例外で、宦官といえば多くは政権を動揺させた。正統帝（在位1435～49）が宦官王振を信任してオイラート部を親征し、かえって土木堡(どぼくほ)で敗れて捕らえられ（土木の変）、明を滅亡の危機に陥れたことや、正徳帝（在位1505～21）のとき、人君たる資質に欠けた帝にかわって、宦官劉瑾(りゅうきん)が内外に政治を行ったが、安化王、寧王らの反乱を招き、王守仁の戦略によって救われたことなどは大きな悪業である。しかも王振は、没収された家産だけでも金庫・銀庫60余棟、6～7尺の珊瑚(さんご)樹20余株に達し、劉瑾のそれも黄金250万両、銀5000万両に及ぶなどは、収賄を重ねた証拠である。ただ、明代には、天子の独裁権が確立していたので、彼らも天子の信任を失えばたちまち失脚した。明末、天啓帝（在位1620～27）のとき、宦官魏忠賢(ぎちゅうけん)が天子の乳母(めのと)と私通して、軍・民両権を握り、激化した党争に加わって、東林党の弾圧に狂奔した功により、全国各地に生祠(せいし)が建てられるほど権勢を誇ったが、崇禎(すうてい)帝（在位1627～44）が即位すると、彼は信任されず、その一派はたちまち一掃された。

　清代は、明代の悪弊を教訓にして、宦官には周到な注意を払い、比較的その弊害は少ない。ただ、その末期、西太后(せいたいこう)のとき、宦官安得海、李蓮英(りれんえい)らが政治に関与したが、経学者の孫詒譲(そんいじょう)らが宦官全廃論を唱えてからは、その勢力は後宮に逼塞(ひっそく)し、清の滅亡とともに正式に全廃された。ただしその残留者は中華民国10年代まで存続した。

　なお、朝鮮、安南などが宦官を中国へ進貢しただけではなく、自国の宮廷にも養っていたのは、中国からの波及とみてよいが、日本はこれに倣わなかったので、わが国には宦官は存在しない。

［星　斌夫］

『「支那の宦官」（『桑原隲蔵全集　第1巻』所収・1968・岩波書店）』▽『三田村泰助著『宦官』（中公新書）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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