Heian period

Japanese: 平安時代 - へいあんじだい

Period Overview

The Heian period refers to the 400 years between the transfer of the capital to Nagaokakyo in 784 (Enryaku 3) at the end of the 8th century and the founding of the Kamakura Shogunate at the end of the 12th century (there are various theories, but here we consider it to be the downfall of the Taira clan in 1185 and the establishment of the Shugo and Jito positions by Minamoto no Yoritomo). This period was a transitional period from ancient times to the Middle Ages, and has been noted for a long time as the period when the foundations of the samurai government were formed after the collapse of the ancient Ritsuryo state control, and the period when feudalism was formed in Japan. During this period, the Ritsuryo state control of public land and citizens collapsed, and the medieval Shoen system gradually took shape in the 11th and 12th centuries, based on the social trend of the formation of medieval villages. Then, the samurai who made these manors and public lands their "destiny" lands strengthened their power, and in the late 12th century, the Taira clan came to wield influence in the central political world, creating the social entity that would usher in the next Kamakura period.

In terms of culture, after imitation and absorption of continental culture, what could be called national culture finally emerged in various fields, and a prime example of this is the flowering of court literature from the end of the 10th century to the beginning of the 11th century.

In terms of politics, the Northern Fujiwara clan strengthened its power and entered the regent era in the late 10th century, but in the late 11th century, Emperor Gosanjo ascended to the throne and the influence of the regent family declined, and after Emperor Shirakawa began the cloistered government, the cloistered dictatorship continued, but in the late 12th century, the Taira clan wielded power in the central political world. It goes without saying that the line from the regent family to the cloistered emperor is important in political history, but if we try to interpret the entire political history from only this line and explain that the control of the state under the Ritsuryo code declined and local politics became desolate, then we are asked why the flowering of imperial culture could emerge from such decline and desolation. Research is being conducted in parallel with the line from the regent family to the cloistered emperor on how the system and policies of national control changed during the Heian period, but we must assemble a political history that integrates all of these. When the Ritsuryo state reached a deadlock in the 9th century, it shifted to a new state system in the early 10th century (this is called the "dynastic state"). The Ritsuryo state did not continue to decline throughout the Heian period, but rather it shifted to a dynastic state and maintained control over the country. The power of the regents during the Sekkan period was also based on control over the dynastic state, and it should not be overlooked that the rise of the samurai was also supported by the local politics of the dynastic state.

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Politics and Diplomacy

Political history is inseparable from the policies of a nation. During the Heian period, there were two policy shifts accompanied by changes in the ruling system, but these were not necessarily related to changes in political leaders, so here we will divide the period into periods based on the shift in the ruling system of the nation. In the 9th century, the Heian period continued the Ritsuryo state system from the previous era, but at the beginning of the 10th century, it changed to a dynastic state system. There are two views on how long this dynastic state system should last. One is to consider it to have lasted until the founding of the Kamakura Shogunate at the end of the 12th century (which is considered the beginning of the medieval state), and to divide it into an early dynastic state and a late dynastic state with the 11th century as the dividing line. The other is to consider the period up to the mid-11th century as a dynastic state, and anything after that as a medieval state. Here we will follow the former view.

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The Ritsuryo State Period

(Until the beginning of the 10th century) Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Nagaoka in 784 (Enryaku 3), and then to Heian-kyo in 794. Thus, Emperor Kanmu's politics, which left Tenmu's Heijo-kyo, were historically significant as a turning point in the Ritsuryo state period. In Nagaoka-kyo, the Chodoin and the Dairi were separated, which indicates that the system in which the emperor controlled the government officials and carried out government affairs had changed to one in which the emperor was in the Dairi and oversaw government affairs through the Daijokan, which controlled all the government officials. In addition, while the powerful aristocrats in the central political world at the time of the establishment of the Ritsuryo state fell into decline by the end of the 8th century, the significance of the Kanmu era is noted in the trend of changing clan existence, as shown by the appointment of new clans to councilors during the Kanmu era. In 800, land distribution was carried out on a national scale, but this was the last time it was done on a national scale. In the 9th century, land distribution was no longer carried out on a regular basis across the country, but was only carried out sporadically in each province. The basic reason for this is that the control of individuals based on household registries, which was the basis of the control of the Ritsuryo state, had become invalid. However, from the reign of Kanmu until the early 9th century, national efforts were made to strengthen the control of the Ritsuryo state while responding to the current situation within the basic framework of the Ritsuryo system. The turning point in the history of national politics in the 9th century was the Jowa period (834-848). During the Jowa period, there were cases in which the number of levies was fixed for each province, but this was an indication of a policy that sought to ensure that only a fixed number of levies were collected for each province, since it was no longer possible to collect head taxes based on the actual number of levies. This meant that kokushi were tasked with providing tribute to the central government, but the central government still adhered to the principle of centralized control under the Ritsuryo system, which distinguishes it from the transition to a dynastic state system described below. This is evident in the national politics of Emperor Uda during the Kanpyo era (889-898) and the subsequent attempts to promote the Ritsuryo system under the leadership of the left minister Fujiwara no Tokihira in the early reign of Emperor Daigo.

Fuyutsugu, who built the foundation for the rise of the Northern Fujiwara clan, was promoted to Minister of the Left after becoming Kurodo no To in 810 (Kōnin 1). His son Yoshifusa is thought to have acted as de facto regent for Emperor Seiwa, who ascended to the throne at the age of nine, but was made regent in 866 (Jogan 8). Yoshifusa's adopted son Mototsune was made de facto regent when Emperor Kokō ascended to the throne, and also served as regent under the next Emperor Uda. In addition, from the Jowa era onwards, there was a growing tendency for the Fujiwara and Minamoto clans to make up an overwhelming majority of court nobles, and this phenomenon may be related to the policy of provincial governors from the Jowa era onwards.

In terms of diplomacy, the last mission was sent to the Tang Dynasty in 838 (Jowa 5), and the next mission in 894 (Kanpei 6) was cancelled due to a petition from Sugawara no Michizane. At that time, the Tang Dynasty was in decline (it fell in 907), and merchant ships had already arrived from the continent.

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Early Dynastic State Period

(Early 10th century to 11th century 40s) After the failure of the attempt to promote the Ritsuryo system led by the Minister of the Left Fujiwara Tokihira in 902 (Engi 2), probably when Tadahira succeeded his brother Tokihira, a transition to a new national system, i.e., a dynastic state system, which changed the governing principles of the Ritsuryo state took place. In this early dynastic state, the central government delegated the governance of the provinces to kokushi (from around the 9th century, authority and responsibility were concentrated in the kami, and they came to be called "zuryo" (receptionists)) and no longer issued instructions on the administration of the provinces. However, when a serious problem arose, the central government dispatched an envoy. In exchange for being entrusted with governing the provinces, the kokushi had to submit a set amount of tribute to the central government for each province. In this new system, the central government no longer carried out administrative work that had involved itself in the provinces as in the previous era, and the nobles simply reviewed applications submitted by the kokushi of each province for a ruling. In the past, it was often said that the failure of the nobles in the regent period to pay attention to national politics and to focus solely on carrying out Imperial court ceremonies as per precedent was a sign of political decadence, and that this decadence caused local politics to fall into disrepair. However, this was not the case; rather, in a dynastic state, the amount of work involved in national politics at the center had drastically decreased compared to the previous era, and national control was maintained under the new system. As a result, both the Taira Masakado Rebellion and the Fujiwara Sumitomo Rebellion, which broke out in succession in the east and west in 939 (Tenkei 2), were able to be put down. On the other hand, the kokushi who were entrusted with control of their own countries accumulated enormous wealth through their authority.

In this central political world, the Fujiwara and Minamoto clans monopolized most of the nobility, and although there were no regents or chancellors during the reigns of Emperors Daigo and Murakami, the power of the Fujiwara clan was unshakable. When Emperor Reizei ascended to the throne in 967 (Kōhō 4), Fujiwara no Saneyori became chancellor, and from then on regents and chancellors were almost always in place, ushering in what is known as the Sekkan period. The period from when Fujiwara no Michinaga became Nairan in 995 (Chotoku 1) until his death in 1027 (Manju 4) was the heyday of the regent period, and around this heyday, historical documents reveal more than 20 cases of appeals against the harsh governance of the kokushi, such as the case in 988 (Eien 2) when gunji and peasants in Owari Province went to the capital to sue Owari no Kami Fujiwara no Motonaga. Behind these events was the rise of local powers, whose movements were undermining the control of the kokushi.

During this time, there was a law that required a certain number of years to pass before foreign merchant ships could arrive in Japan, and this law was established during the Engi era (901-923). In addition, although it is unclear when this was established, there was a prohibition on Japanese people traveling abroad without the government's permission. In 1019 (the 3rd year of the Kannin era), Toi pirate ships attacked Tsushima and Iki.

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Late Dynastic State Period

(11th century 40s to late 12th century) In the 11th century 40s, when the regent Yorimichi still held power in the central political world, the system of the early dynastic state was transformed into that of the late dynastic state. In the late dynastic state, the administrative structures and systems of each province were significantly changed, and newly emerging local powers (who would become the medieval samurai) were appointed as gunji and goji of the new administrative units of counties and villages. These new administrative units of counties, villages, wards, and villages became territories throughout the Middle Ages, and when they came under the possession of manor lords, they became manors, so it can be said that the basis of medieval manors was realized here. The Manor Reorganization Order of the late Heian period, which began in 1040 (Chokyu 1), responded to the social situation in which the realities of medieval manors were emerging.

In 1068 (Jiriyaku 4), Emperor Gosanjo, who had no relatives from the Fujiwara clan, ascended to the throne, and the year before, Fujiwara no Yorimichi resigned as regent. The Enkyu Manor Reorganization Order of 1069 (Enkyu 1) was a continuation of the lineage since the Chokyu Manor Reorganization Order (1040), but a Record Manor Certificate Office was established to examine the public appraisal of manors. During the reign of Emperor Gosanjo, the system for the imperial family's private economy was established, such as reorganizing niebito (officers) as kugonin (officers), and the establishment of the Enkyu Senjimasu (memorial certificate).

In 1086 (Otoku 3), the Shirakawa Insei began. All three emperors (Horikawa, Toba, and Sutoku) during the Shirakawa Insei period were young, and it became common for the In to essentially decide on national affairs on behalf of the young emperors, and important councils of nobles were also held at the In no Gosho. However, behind the scenes, many of the people who held important positions in the Dajokan organization became In no tsukasa (official officials) or In no tenjobito (official court nobles), and were connected to the In. After the death of Shirakawa, Toba took over the Insei, and immediately after Toba's death in 1156 (Hogen 1), the Hogen Rebellion broke out. Emperor Goshirakawa, who won the rebellion, established the Hogen New System, but soon after he took over the Goshirakawa Insei, and in the tense political situation caused by the development of the manor system, the In's autocratic control over national affairs strengthened.

After the Heiji Rebellion in 1159 (Heiji 1), Taira no Kiyomori rapidly rose to prominence in the central political world, and in 1167 (Nin'an 2) he became the Grand Minister of State. Kiyomori's wife Tokiko's younger sister Shigeko (later Kenshunmon'in) gave birth to a son of the retired Emperor Goshirakawa, who ascended to the throne and became Emperor Takakura. Kiyomori's daughter Tokuko (later Kenreimon'in) became the Empress of Emperor Takakura and gave birth to a son who became Emperor Antoku. In this way, the Taira clan reached its zenith, but the Tale of the Heike (Wagami no Eiga) states that "in total, the clan had 16 nobles and over 30 courtiers" is the total number, not that they all existed at one time. It was after the coup d'état in November 1179 (Jisho 3) that the situation "The Taira clan, which controlled more than 30 provinces, was reduced to more than half of the country." Meanwhile, anti-Taira movements arose against the Taira clan, who were rapidly strengthening their power in the central political world. In 1177, a plot to overthrow the Taira clan by the In no Kami-no-Aya was uncovered (Shishigatani Incident). In addition, in response to anti-Taira schemes by Emperor Go-Shirakawa and the regents, Kiyomori replaced the regent in November 1179 and imprisoned Emperor Go-Shirakawa. The Taira government refers to the period after this coup d'état. In response, the temple forces united to oppose this, and in 1180, King Mochihito raised an army. Kiyomori suppressed this and forced the capital to be moved to Fukuhara, but in August, Minamoto no Yoritomo raised an army in the eastern part of the country. As anti-Taira forces rose up all over the country, in December Taira Shigehira's forces burned down Nara, destroying Todaiji Temple, Kofukuji Temple and other temple buildings. Just before this, Kiyomori released Emperor Goshirakawa from imprisonment, but the Taira were already isolated, and in February of the following year (Yōwa 1), Kiyomori died of illness. In 83 (Juei 2), Minamoto no Yoshinaka's forces approached Kyoto, and the Taira clan fled to the west. Yoshinaka was soon isolated in Kyoto, and after being defeated by the armies of Minamoto no Noriyori and Yoshitsune in 84 (Genryaku 1), the Minamoto forces defeated the Taira at Ichinotani, and in 85 (Bunji 1), the Taira fled from Yashima and were destroyed at Dannoura.

Even in the late dynastic state period, diplomatic relations with the continent remained unchanged from the earlier period, but from around the 12th century, direct trade between Japan and Song became active. As commerce in Japan developed, Song and Tang coins began to flow in, and even though the government issued bans at the end of the 12th century, it was not possible to stop the circulation of coins. Taira no Kiyomori, who had influence in the western part of Japan, knew of this situation and actively engaged in trade with Song. During Kiyomori's time, he controlled pirates in the Seto Inland Sea, and as Kiyomori was a believer in Itsukushima Shrine, pilgrimages to Itsukushima by retired emperors and aristocrats became popular because navigation on the Seto Inland Sea was guaranteed. In 1170 (Kao 2), Kiyomori had Song ships arrive at Owada no Tomari, and after that, he carried out major repairs to Owada no Tomari, and trade with the arrival of Song ships became more active. Until then, foreign ships that arrived in Japan were required to be stopped within the jurisdiction of Dazaifu, so the aristocrats were surprised when a Song ship arrived at Owada no Ura. By this time, Japan's shipbuilding and navigation technology had improved, and trade with the continent became even more active.

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

Society and Economy

In one tale from around the 8th century collected in the Nihon Ryōiki, the type of property mentioned is "slaves" and "horses and cattle," but in the same tale collected in the Konjaku Monogatarishu, written in the early 12th century, the type of property is changed to "fields to be owned" and "servants to be served." This is an example of the economic changes that took place over the 400 years of the Heian period. The development of the manor system from the 11th to the 12th centuries was based on the historical trend of a society in which ownership of fields and retainers was given the utmost importance, and where medieval villages were formed.

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The wealthy and the royal family

In the 9th century, at the beginning of the Heian period, wealth was represented by movable property such as slaves, horses and cattle, but in the late 9th century, the economic activities of wealthy people became a major obstacle to the control of the Ritsuryo state. These wealthy people gave rice and money to the surrounding peasants, and also contracted for the surrounding peasants to pay tax on their behalf, and used the corvée work of the peasants who cultivated the wealthy people's fields as the principal and interest, thus creating their own sphere of influence. In the late 9th century, these wealthy people linked themselves with the royal families and, using their authority, did not pay taxes to the provinces and counties. The Ritsuryo state repeatedly issued prohibitions against the royal families' manors. One example of this was the Engi Manor Reorganization Order, which was included in the Ritsuryo System Promotion Policy of 902 (Engi 2) led by Fujiwara Tokihira. With the shift to a dynastic state system, tax-collection units called "myo" were established within each province, and the spheres of influence of wealthy individuals were also considered "myo" and came to be placed under the control of the provincial government offices.

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Manors exempt from temporary duties and the movement towards territorial development

The social trends that are noteworthy in the early imperial state period are the sudden increase in manors exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties, which were mainly seen in developed regions, and the movement towards territorial development that was seen nationwide. First, the sudden increase in manors exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties. The imperial state's tax system consisted of government property and temporary miscellaneous duties, which could be exempted by the kokushi. In order to avoid the temporary miscellaneous duties imposed by the provinces and counties, local groups in Kinai and nearby provinces formed a status relationship with a certain powerful family or temple or shrine, and on the pretext of serving them, they demanded and obtained an exemption from the temporary miscellaneous duties from the kokushi. However, since temporary miscellaneous duties were imposed and exempted on rice fields, the rice fields that were exempt from the temporary miscellaneous duties in this way were also considered manors. In the mid-11th century, the majority of Izumi Province (southern Osaka Prefecture) and the majority of Tamba Province (Kyoto Prefecture, Hyogo Prefecture) were exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties. In this way, manors exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties were the result of local groups actively taking measures to avoid temporary miscellaneous duties, and the fields exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties were public fields and reclaimed land cultivated by these local groups, and it is thought that these reclaimed fields were donated to the powerful temples and shrines with whom they had formed a status relationship as a group. Later, when these powerful temples and shrines were also exempt from government property as a substitute for the national benefits that they should have received, the manors that were exempt from temporary miscellaneous duties became manors owned by the whole yen. Many of the powerful temple and shrine manors in the Kinai and Kinki regions in the Middle Ages were established in this way, and were generally of the type that did not have a local lord.

Furthermore, from the end of the 10th century to the 11th century, the development of abandoned fields and uncultivated land progressed nationwide, and as a result, the prototype of what was called a fief in the Middle Ages appeared. Under the early dynastic state system, the "myo" system restricted the ownership of developed fields as territory, but farmers who came together with newly emerging local powers developed abandoned fields and uncultivated land, and nominally donated them to the regents and borrowed their influence to effectively eliminate the intervention of the provincial governors. As farmers who cultivated public fields flowed into these newly developed areas, the existing public fields fell into disrepair, and the provincial governors began to struggle with how to deal with the disrepair of public fields. With the transition to the late dynastic state system in the 11th century, the territories of the newly emerging local powers were officially recognized because the provincial governors could no longer maintain control over their own provinces if they tried to suppress the new development movement led by these newly emerging local powers while keeping it illegal. Thus, the newly emerging local powers had their developed lands officially recognized as new administrative units and were appointed as gunji or goji, and were suddenly positioned as part of the kokuga control. These newly emerging local powers would go on to become the samurai of the Middle Ages, and by being appointed as gunji or goji, the samurai were able to solidify their control within their territories, and this was the basis for the rise of the samurai at the end of the Heian period. In addition, behind the establishment of these new administrative units such as gun, go, and ho, medieval villages were also beginning to take shape, and these new administrative units became the basis for medieval manors.

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Structure of medieval estates and manors

From the point of view of the local lords, the new administrative units in which newly emerging local powers were appointed as gunji and goji were like territories, but the peasants in those territories were generally independent entities that were not subordinate to the local lords in terms of status. The local lords had many subordinate servants and servants who were subordinate to them in terms of status, but they were originally equal to the peasants in terms of status. However, because they were appointed as gunji and goji and had administrative power over the kokuga, they could use their official power over the peasants within that administrative unit. Therefore, the control base of the local lords was not very strong to begin with, and there was a risk that the gunji and goji positions would be taken away by local influential people of the same nature who existed inside and outside the territory. If they could not submit the required government goods and miscellaneous services to the kokuga, the kokushi would replace them in their positions. As long as they performed their duties at the kokuga, they could pass on their gunji and goji positions to their descendants, but the reality was full of danger.

This structure of medieval landholdings was directly connected to the structure of manors, and when manors were established, the local lords became manor officials (the highest-ranking local manor official was generally called Geshi), but they were also threatened with the same danger of being replaced. It was around the end of the 11th century to the 12th century that a fixed tax collection system called "myo" appeared within manors, but this was an imitation of the tax collection unit called "myo" that had been set in the various countries of the early dynastic states, and the "myo" within manors that appeared here usually remained fixed until the late Middle Ages.

There are regional differences in the form of existence of manors and public lands. For example, even in the new domestic administrative units after the mid-11th century, the county was the basic unit from the eastern half of the Chubu region to the Kanto and Tohoku regions, while the village was the administrative unit from the western half of the Chubu region to the west (even if the county was the administrative unit, the existence of the village was not lost within it). In general, in the manorial lands of the advanced regions, there were no local lords, and influential farmers called konno jujin led the villages, while in the border regions, the local lords with public power placed their families in various parts of the territory and exercised strong control. Generally, under the local lords were village landlords and common peasants who were headmen and lay people, and these village landlords and common peasants were called "jujin" and formed the core of the village structure, and they also had some servants and subordinates. The small peasants who were lower in rank than the common peasants were unstable small farmers. However, their status within the villages was not fixed but fluid. As medieval landholdings emerged and the manor system developed, local lords tried to subordinate the common peasants in terms of status in order to strengthen their control within their territories. The common peasants rebelled against the actions of the local lords, and the conflict between the two became a social problem throughout the following Kamakura period.

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Economic issues

In agriculture, double cropping was practiced in the 12th century. Historical documents show that in the early 12th century, wheat was planted as a second crop on rice paddies in Ise Province (Mie Prefecture), which is thought to have helped improve the lives of farmers. In the late Heian period, there are signs of the development of commerce and industry, with powerful temples and shrines controlling merchants and industrialists. In the mid-11th century, servants and miscellaneous servants of government offices and royal families were setting up private businesses to weave brocade and brocade for personal gain, so an edict was issued to stop them. The first appearance of the word "za" (a za) was in a historical document from 1092 (Kanji 6) as an example of a village za in Yase Village, Yamashiro Province (central and southern Kyoto Prefecture). This Yase-zato area was under the control of Shoren-in, and it is believed that the inhabitants probably served as palanquin bearers, which gave them the privilege of exemption from temporary miscellaneous duties, while their livelihood was selling firewood. Also, from around the 12th century, there are examples of land provided for artisans within manors to serve specific purposes needed by the manor's lord. Although these were cases of people serving the manor's lord, it can be assumed that behind these there was a development of commerce and industry, and this is supported by the fact that the circulation of coins flourished in Japan at the end of the Heian period. The last minting of the Imperial 12 sen coins in Japan was in the Kengen Taiho coin of 958 (the 2nd year of the Tentoku era), and no more was done thereafter. However, from around the 11th century, Song and Tang coins began to be imported, and by 1179 (Jisho 3), it was recorded that a money plague was spreading throughout the country (Hyakurensho).

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

People's Lives

Sugawara no Michizane was appointed as the governor of Sanuki in 886 (the second year of the Ninna era), and in the four years that followed he composed the "Ten Poems of the Early Winter" (volume 3 of the Kanke Bunso) out of sympathy for the lives of the people of Sanuki Province (Kagawa Prefecture). The following poem is from the "Ten Poems of the Early Winter" (volume 3 of the Kanke Bunso): A vagabond who leaves his hometown to evade taxes and wanders to other countries only to find himself taxed in his new home. His deerskin clothes are torn, he lives in a single room in a round thatched house, and with his wife and child on his back, he goes around begging. A man who makes a living by renting out boats owns no land at all, and even on days of rough winds and waves he is still maneuvering his oar, but all he wants is more opportunities to be employed. Fishermen worry about their fishing lines breaking while catching fish, and sell the fish to pay taxes, so they are always worried about the weather and wind direction. Salt sellers exhaust their lives boiling seawater. Sanuki's climate is suitable for salt production, but the profits are monopolized by powerful clans, so people have repeatedly complained to officials at the port. People who work in the country's medicinal herb gardens are engaged in the task of separating medicinal herbs as part of their labor, but if they are even slightly short of a few, they are whipped. It is interesting to note that the book also describes the lives of people who make a living from occupations other than agriculture, but it was not until this period that vagrants were cracked down on. The term "Tato" (field sword) was only seen in the Heian period, but its first appearance in historical documents was in the 859 (Jogan 1) rice field survey of Echi-no-sho, Omi Province (Shiga Prefecture), owned by Gangoji Temple. There, the Tatsuji, sent from Gango-ji Temple, pursues that Tatsu and other farmers have taken the rice registered as Gango-ji Temple as another territory and do not store the jishi at Gango-ji Temple. Tatsuji is a person who represents the farmers among the farmers, but skillfully refuted the pursuit of Tatsuji in accordance with the actual circumstances of the area, and it took over ten years for the Tatsuji to finally restore the Terada. In the 11th century, it is commonly referred to as "Tatsuji," which means someone who is skilled in agricultural management. There are examples of people who are well-versed in land customs called "formerly Ota-ji," but there are also examples of people who have been involved in Shota management using their agricultural management techniques while traveling from country to country.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. It is noteworthy that the high-profile incident in which farmers from these countries sued the state governors were all just before the change in the state control system. And at both times the prosecution periods of the farmers' appeals were severely affected by the state governors.

In 945 (Tenkei 8), rumors spread that various gods would enter Kyoto from countries in east and west. The names of the gods were called Shidara, Koigasa, and Hakumen gods. At the end of July, the mikoshi, which was called Shidara, was carried by hundreds of people and entered Toyoshima County from Kawanobe County in Settsu (Osaka Prefecture, Hyogo Prefecture). The mikoshi was covered with the fringe of Jizai Tenjin, which enshrines the spirit of Sugawara Michizane, and three fronts, with the three sons of Usa Haruo and Sumiyoshi. There, a crowd of people, both old and old, gathered together, and danced wildly throughout the day and night.になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

In the aforementioned "Ten Shuttle and Early Holes" by Sugawara Michizane, there is a depiction of people who make a living in fishing. Some of the sea people, or even those who were honoured to the emperor, or those who were protected from privileges instead of serving as gods of various shrines, but they did not have fields and did their lives at sea. However, from around the late 11th century, among these sea people, they established themselves and cultivated fields, those who traded catches, and those who focused on transporting by ships, and others who focused on transporting by ships. This was a sign of the development of social division of labor.

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

culture

Achieving through acceptance of Tang Feng culture

In Japan, which has been working to absorb and digest continental culture, this has progressed in the 9th century, and has begun to express cultural expressions in continental culture forms. Saicho and Kukai simultaneously entered the Tang Dynasty, Saicho introduced the Tendai sect, and Kukai studied Shingon esoteric Buddhism before returning to Japan to establish the Shingon sect. The Tendai sect also deepened the colours of esoteric Buddhism, and practiced the secret practices of protecting states and the benefit of this world at national and political demands, but from around the 10th century when the dynasty was transformed into a dynasty state system, it began to enter the daily life of the nobles at the personal requests of the nobles. Meanwhile, Buddhism began to fully penetrate the region in the 9th century, and temples and Buddha buildings in the region became even more popular. The movement of syncretization of Shinto and Buddhism became more prominent during this period as the old community was being dismantled and Buddhism was becoming more prevalent among the people, and as a result, the idea of God changed, and God's personality emerged, and historical figures were also worshiped as ancestor gods. In the 9th century, Japanese people began to publish writings in Chinese literature, legal codes, and other works. In the early 9th century, Chinese literature education was compiled by imperial compilation of the "Linguunshu", "Bunkashu Reishu", and "Kingukushu", and "Ryo no Gige", which unified the interpretation of Yororyo in a national basis. In the late 9th century, private Chinese poetry such as the "Denshi Family Collection," "Kike House," "Kai House Collection," and "Kanke Bunso," and "Kusu House Collection," were published, and Japanese Chinese works expressing Japanese emotions appeared in the form of Chinese literature. In addition, waka poetry, which was once the rise of the rise of Chinese literature, appeared on the surface in the late 9th century, and six poetry senshi were produced. In terms of Buddhist statue sculpture, one-wood structure became the mainstream at this time, and esoteric sculptures appeared along with the trend of esoteric Buddhism, and mandalas were created, but the techniques of esoteric painting were seen there. In the book, the "Three Brush of Heian" was published by Kukai, Emperor Saga, and Tachibana Nanoyanari.

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

National culture

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The first collection of imperially compiled waka poems, Kokin Wakashu, compiled in 905 (Enki 5), was written in kana, and it had historical significance as the kana was used in imperially compiled collections. Since then, imperially compiled waka poems, known as the "Three Generation Collection," were compiled one after another, and as it was able to express freely, it became commonplace in private places. Along with this, stories such as The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, Ise Monogatari, and Yamato Monogatari, have been written, but in this article, the detailed emotions of the private world were expressed as stories, unlike the expressions of waka poems. The Makura no Soshi and the Tale of Genji, which appeared during the Regent Period, are considered to be the finest works of literature. Chinese literature also held its official status around this time, but Chinese poetry and waka poetry began to be written in the same place, and as roei became popular, the "Wakan Roeishu" was compiled, which contained Chinese poetry and waka poetry that was in its flavor. In books at this time, Ono Tofu, Fujiwara Sari, and Fujiwara Yukinari, who were said to be the Sanseki, appeared, and the Japanese style of the book, strengthened the Japanese style, such as Gyonai's calligraphy of the Kusagana.

In architecture, a sledding hall was created with structures suitable for the Japanese climate, and Yamato-e depicting Japanese subjects appeared on the shoji and folding screens placed inside the building as decorations. In Buddhism, esoteric Buddhism was practiced in the dynasty world, while Pure Land Buddhism, which was born from Tendai teaching, became popular. In the 10th century, Kuya preached Nembutsu in the Kyoto city, but at the end of the 10th century, Genshin's Ojo Yoshu (Ojo) was widely read among monks and nobles, and played a major role in the social dissemination of Pure Land Buddhism. As political and social anxiety became more serious in the 11th century, the idea of the Latter Law spread not only to monks but also to nobles and local people, and the theory that the Latter Law was entered in 1052 (Eisho 7) sparked a sense of despair. Thus, their desire for the Pure Land was strengthened, and the aristocrats tried to create the Pure Land to be introduced to the Amida Hall, which became used as a place for their daily lives, but the art of Pure Land was developed through paintings and sculptures that were seen there. The Hoou Hall, created by Fujiwara Yorimichi, conveyed the spirit of the time, and the statue of Amida Buddha in the hall was created by Jocho, and was completed by the method of making marigolds. The parquet made it possible to create large Buddhist statues that could not be made with a single wooden structure, and a group of Buddhist sculptors were organized and made possible by division of labor.

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

Local interest and local spread of culture

The transition to a later dynasty state system was the result of the rise of new powers in various countries, but this was annoyances who had been resting on the existing national ruling order that they could no longer pursue their dreams of the past. Around the Insei period, interest in local society began to appear in the world of dynasty aristocratic culture, and culture spread to the provinces. The main story of Eiga Monogatari is thought to have been established around Chogen (1028-37), but the sequel and Ookagami are estimated to have been established after the Resekkan period. Here, the heyday of the Sekkan family is described in the story, and the awareness of the aristocrats who look back on history amid a sudden change in social situations is seen. Meanwhile, the Mutsuwaki (Mutswaki), which describes the world of samurai that has emerged, and the Konjaku Tales (Konjaku) Story Collection (Konjaku) which revolves around the lineage of the Japanese Reiki (Nihon Reiki), yet also adds new topics of social subjects for samurai and common people. In the book "Ryojin Hisho," edited by Emperor Goshirakawa, the song collection of the present-day songs of people from a wide range of classes in a wide area. The following is a good example of the Kyoto culture spreading to the region during the Insei period: The Konjiki-do of Chuson-ji Temple in Oshu Hiraizumi, which exudes the present-day spirit of the three Fujiwara clan who ruled this region. In the west, there is the Amida Hall, at Bungo Kunitomiki Temple. Aki Kunitsukushima Shrine received the passionate faith of the Taira clan, and during the Heird period, the Emperor and aristocrats' pilgrimage to Itsukushima became popular, and it has rapidly become a hot topic in history. The Heike Sutra, which has been passed down to the company, is a luxurious decorative sutra, which exposes the glory of the Taira clan and the magnificent Heian culture.

[Sakamoto Prize 3]

"Iwanami Lectures of Japanese History 4, Ancient 4," "Iwanami Lectures of Japanese History 4, Ancient 4 (New Edition)" (1962, 1976, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Tsuchida Naoji, "Japanese History 5, Dynasty Aristocracy" (1965, Chuokoron-sha) " ▽ "Sakamoto Shozo, "Japanese History 6, Resident Era" (1974, Shogakukan)" ▽ "Inagaki Yasuhiko and Toda Yoshimi, "History of the Japanese People 2, Do Ikki and Civil War" (1974, Sanseido)"

[参照項目] |王朝国家|鎌倉時代[年表] |平安時代（年表）

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

時代概観

　平安時代とは、8世紀末784年（延暦3）の長岡京遷都から、12世紀末の鎌倉幕府創始（諸説があるが、ここでは1185年の平氏滅亡、源頼朝(よりとも)の守護・地頭(じとう)設置とする）までの約400年間をいう。この時代は、古代から中世への移行期であり、古代律令(りつりょう)国家支配が崩壊してから武士の政権の基盤が形成される時代、日本で封建制が形成される時代として早くから注目されてきた。この時代には公地公民の律令国家支配が崩れて、11～12世紀にしだいに中世荘園(しょうえん)制が形成されてくるが、これは中世村落が形成されてくる社会的動向に基づく。そしてそれら荘園公領を「一所懸命」の地とする武士が勢力を強めてきて、12世紀後期には平氏が中央政界で権勢を振るうに至り、次の鎌倉時代を迎える社会的実体ができる。

　文化の面では、大陸文化を模倣・吸収してきたなかからようやく国風(こくふう)文化とよばれるような文化が諸分野で出現したが、10世紀末から11世紀初頭にかけて王朝文学の花が開いたのもその代表的な一例である。

　さて政治の面では、藤原北家(ほっけ)が勢力を強めて10世紀後期には摂関(せっかん)時代を迎えたが、11世紀後期には後三条(ごさんじょう)天皇が即位して摂関家の勢力が下降し、白河(しらかわ)上皇が院政を開始してから院の専制が続いたが、12世紀後期には平氏が中央政界で権勢を振るう、という筋で叙述されるのが普通である。もちろん摂関家から院へという線が政治史上重要であることはいうまでもないが、その線だけから政治史全体を解釈しようとして、律令国家支配が衰退して地方政治が荒廃したという説明をすると、ではそのような衰退・荒廃のなかからなにゆえに王朝文化の花が開くのか、と問われるのである。摂関家から院へという線と並行して、平安時代に国家支配の制度や政策がどのように変化していったかという研究が進められているが、それらを総合した政治史を組み立てなければならない。9世紀に律令国家支配が行き詰まると、10世紀初頭に新たな国家体制へ転換した（これを「王朝国家」という）。律令国家支配が平安時代を通じて衰退し続けたのではなく、王朝国家に転換して国家支配を維持していたのである。摂関時代の摂関家の権勢も王朝国家支配に立脚していたのであり、また武士の台頭も王朝国家の地方政治によって裏づけられていたことを見逃してはならない。

［坂本賞三］

政治・外交

　政治史は国家の政策と不可分である。ところで平安時代には支配体制の変更を伴う政策の転換が二度あったが、それはかならずしも政界主導者の交替と関係がないので、ここでは国家支配体制の転換でもって時期区分を行う。平安時代は、9世紀は前代に引き続いて律令(りつりょう)国家体制だが、10世紀初頭に王朝国家体制に転換した。この王朝国家体制をいつまでと考えるかについては二つの見解がある。一つは12世紀末の鎌倉幕府創始（これを中世国家の始まりとする）までとし、11世紀40年代を境として前期王朝国家と後期王朝国家とに分ける見解である。もう一つは、11世紀中期までを王朝国家とし、以後を中世国家とする見解である。ここでは前者によることとする。

［坂本賞三］

律令国家期

（10世紀初頭まで）桓武(かんむ)天皇は784年（延暦3）長岡に都を遷(うつ)し、794年に平安京に遷都した。こうして天武(てんむ)系の平城京を去った桓武天皇の政治は、律令国家期の画期をなすと評価できる歴史的意義をもつものであった。長岡京では朝堂院と内裏(だいり)とが分離されていたが、それは、それまで天皇が官人を把握して政務を行う方式がとられていたのが、天皇は内裏にいて、全官人を統轄する太政官(だいじょうかん)を通じて政務をみるという方式にかわったことを示している。また律令国家成立当時の中央政界の有力貴族が8世紀末には没落していく一方、桓武朝に新興氏族が参議に登用されたことに示されるように、氏族の存在形態がかわりつつあった動向のなかで桓武朝の意義が注目される。800年には全国的規模で班田が行われたが、全国的な班田はこれが最後で、9世紀にはもはや全国一斉の定期的な班田はみられず、国ごとに散発的に行われたにすぎない。これは、律令国家支配の基本にある戸籍計帳に基づく個別人身支配が無実化したことに基本的原因がある。が、桓武朝からあとも9世紀前期の間、律令制の基本的枠組みのなかで、現状に対応しながら律令国家支配を強めようという国政的努力がなされた。9世紀の国政史の画期となるのは承和(じょうわ)年間（834～848）である。承和年間に国ごとに課丁数が固定された事例がみられるが、これは、もはや実際に課丁の実数によって人頭税を徴収することが不可能になったので、国ごとに固定した課丁数だけの収取を確保しようとした政策の表れである。それは国司に中央貢進物を請け負わせたことを意味するが、なお中央政府は律令制中央集権支配原則を固守していた点で後述の王朝国家体制への転換と区別され、宇多(うだ)天皇の寛平(かんぴょう)年間（889～898）の国政や、それに続く醍醐(だいご)天皇初期の左大臣藤原時平(ときひら)主導による律令制振興の試みはその表れである。

　藤原北家(ほっけ)台頭の基礎を築いた冬嗣(ふゆつぐ)は810年（弘仁1）に蔵人頭(くろうどのとう)となってからあと左大臣まで昇進した。その子良房(よしふさ)は、9歳で即位した清和(せいわ)天皇の事実上の摂政(せっしょう)を行っていたと考えられるが、866年（貞観8）に摂政とされた。良房の養子基経(もとつね)は、光孝(こうこう)天皇が即位すると事実上の関白とされ、次の宇多天皇のもとでも関白となった。また承和年間以降、公卿(くぎょう)のなかで藤原氏と源氏とが圧倒的多数を占める傾向が強まっていくのであるが、この現象は承和年間以降の国司請負政策とも関連する面があるであろう。

　外交では、838年（承和5）の遣唐使が最後のものとなり、894年（寛平6）の遣唐使派遣は菅原道真(すがわらのみちざね)の上表によって中止された。このころ唐は衰亡しており（907滅亡）、またすでに大陸から商船が来航していたことがその背後にあったのである。

［坂本賞三］

前期王朝国家期

（10世紀初頭～11世紀40年代）902年（延喜2）の左大臣藤原時平主導による律令制振興の試みが失敗してからあと、おそらく忠平(ただひら)が兄時平の跡を継いでから、律令国家の支配原則をかえる新しい国家体制＝王朝国家体制への転換が行われた。かくて出発した前期王朝国家では、中央政府は国司（9世紀ごろから守(かみ)に権限と責任とが集中して「受領(ずりょう)」とよばれるようになる）に任国内支配を委任して、中央政府から諸国国内の行政についてもはや指令を出さなくなった。ただし重大な問題が生ずると中央政府は官使を派遣した。国司は任国内支配を委任されたかわりに、国ごとに定められた量の中央貢進物を進納しなければならなかった。このような新体制になると、中央政府は前代のような諸国国内に立ち入った行政を行わなくなり、公卿もただ諸国の国司から裁決を仰ぐため申請してきたものを審議するだけになった。かつては、摂関時代の公卿たちが国政に関心を向けずもっぱら朝廷の行事を先例どおりに行うことだけに専心しているのは政治の退廃であり、このような退廃の下で地方政治は荒廃したと説明されるのが常であったが、そうではなく、王朝国家では前代に比べて中央の国政の事務量が激減した結果なのであり、新体制下で国家支配は維持されていた。したがって、939年（天慶2）に東西で相次いで反乱に突入した平将門(まさかど)の乱と藤原純友(すみとも)の乱に対してともに鎮圧させることができたのであった。他方、任国内支配を委任された国司はその権限によって巨富を蓄えたのである。

　このような中央政界では藤原氏と源氏とが公卿のほとんどを独占し、醍醐・村上(むらかみ)両天皇の時期には摂政・関白が置かれなかったが藤原氏の権勢は揺るがなかった。967年（康保4）に冷泉(れいぜい)天皇が即位すると藤原実頼(さねより)が関白となり、以後ほぼ摂政・関白が常置されていって世にいう摂関時代となった。なかでも995年（長徳1）に藤原道長が内覧となってから1027年（万寿4）に道長が死去するまでの間は摂関時代の最盛期であったが、この最盛期を中心にした前後のころ、988年（永延2）尾張(おわり)国の郡司・百姓らが尾張守藤原元命(もとなが)を訴えて都に上ったような国司苛政(かせい)上訴事件が20余ばかり史料上にみいだされる。その裏面には在地勢力の台頭があり、その動きが国司の支配を崩しつつあったのである。

　この時期には、外国商船が日本に来航するには一定の年数を隔てなければならないという年紀の法が存在していたが、この年紀の法は延喜(えんぎ)年間（901～923）に定められた。またいつごろ定められたものかは不明だが、わが国の人々が政府の許可なく海外に渡航してはならないという禁令が行われていた。なお1019年（寛仁3）に刀伊(とい)の賊船が対馬(つしま)・壱岐(いき)に来襲した。

［坂本賞三］

後期王朝国家期

（11世紀40年代～12世紀末）関白頼通(よりみち)がまだ中央政界で権勢を保っていた11世紀40年代に、前期王朝国家体制から後期王朝国家体制への転換が行われた。後期王朝国家では、諸国国内の行政組織や制度が大幅に変更され、新興の在地勢力（これが中世の武士となる）が、新たな行政単位となった郡・郷などの郡司・郷司に任命された。このように新行政単位として出現した郡・郷・保・村などが、このあと中世を通じて所領となっていくのであり、それが荘園(しょうえん)領主の領有に入ると荘園になったので、中世の荘園の基になるものはここに実体を現してきたといってよい。1040年（長久1）の荘園整理令から始まる平安後期荘園整理令は、この中世荘園の実体が現れてきた社会情勢に対応するものであった。

　1068年（治暦4）藤原氏を外戚(がいせき)としない後三条(ごさんじょう)天皇が即位し、その前年に藤原頼通は関白を辞した。1069年（延久1）の延久(えんきゅう)の荘園整理令は長久(ちょうきゅう)の荘園整理令（1040）以来の系譜を引くものであったが、記録荘園券契所が設けられて荘園の公験(くげん)を審査した。後三条天皇の時代には贄人(にえびと)を供御人(くごにん)として再組織するなど天皇家私経済の制度が整えられたほか、延久宣旨枡(せんじます)の制定などが行われた。

　1086年（応徳3）白河(しらかわ)院政が開始された。白河院政期の三天皇（堀河(ほりかわ)、鳥羽(とば)、崇徳(すとく)）はいずれも幼少で即位しており、院が幼少の天皇にかわって実質的に国政を裁断することが恒常化し、重要な公卿評定も院御所で行われるようになったが、その裏には、太政官機構の重要な職にある人々の多くが院司や院殿上人(いんのてんじょうびと)などになって、院と結び付く関係になっていたということがあった。白河院が崩じたあと鳥羽院政となり、1156年（保元1）に鳥羽院が崩じた直後に保元(ほうげん)の乱が生じ、乱で勝利した後白河(ごしらかわ)天皇は保元新制を出したが、まもなく後白河院政に入り、荘園制の進展に伴う緊張した政治情勢の下で国政における院の専制が強まった。

　1159年（平治1）の平治(へいじ)の乱のあと急速に平清盛(きよもり)が中央政界で地位を高めてきて、67年（仁安2）清盛は太政大臣となった。清盛の妻時子の妹滋子(しげこ)（のち建春門院）は後白河上皇の皇子を産んでいたが、この皇子が即位して高倉(たかくら)天皇となった。また清盛の娘徳子（のち建礼門院）が高倉天皇の中宮(ちゅうぐう)となって産んだ皇子が安徳(あんとく)天皇である。このように平氏一門は全盛期を迎えたのだが、『平家物語』（吾身栄花(わがみのえいが)）に「惣(そう)じて一門の公卿十六人、殿上人三十余人」とあるのは延べ人数であって、一時点でこのようなことがあったわけではない。また「平家知行(ちぎょう)の国三十余箇国、既に半国にこえたり」という状態になったのは1179年（治承3）11月のクーデター以後であった。一方、急速に中央政界で権勢を強めてきた平氏に対して反平氏の動きがおこり、77年に院近臣による平氏打倒の陰謀が摘発され（鹿ヶ谷(ししがたに)事件）、また後白河法皇や摂関家の側から反平氏の策動があったのに対して、79年11月清盛は関白を交替させ、さらに後白河法皇を幽閉した。平氏政権とはこのクーデター以後をいう。これに対して寺院勢力が団結して対抗し、1180年に以仁(もちひと)王が挙兵した。これを鎮圧した清盛は福原遷都を強行したが、8月に源頼朝(よりとも)が東国で挙兵した。こうして反平氏の軍が各地で起こるなかで、12月に平重衡(しげひら)の軍は南都を焼き討ちし、東大寺、興福寺をはじめとする諸寺堂舎は焼失してしまった。この直前に清盛は後白河法皇の幽閉を解いたが、もはや平氏は孤立しており、翌81年（養和1）閏(うるう)2月清盛は病死した。83年（寿永2）源義仲(よしなか)の軍が京都に迫って平氏一門は西国へ落ちて行った。義仲はまもなく京都で孤立し、84年（元暦1）源範頼(のりより)・義経(よしつね)の軍に敗れたあと、源氏の軍は一ノ谷で平氏を破り、85年（文治1）屋島から敗走した平氏は壇ノ浦で滅亡した。

　後期王朝国家期に入っても大陸との外交関係は前期と変わりはなかったが、12世紀ごろからわが国と宋(そう)との直接貿易が盛んになってきた。わが国の商業が発達してくると宋銭や唐銭が流入するようになり、12世紀末には政府が禁令を発しても銭貨の流通を止めることはできなかった。西国に勢力をもっていた平清盛はこの実情を知っていたので、積極的に対宋貿易に乗り出した。清盛の時代には瀬戸内海の海賊を支配下に置き、清盛が厳島(いつくしま)神社を信仰したことから上皇や貴族たちの厳島参詣(さんけい)が流行したのも瀬戸内海航行が保証されていたからであったが、清盛は1170年（嘉応2）に宋船を大輪田泊(おおわだのとまり)に来航させ、以後、大輪田泊の大修築工事を行って、宋船の来航による貿易が活発になった。それまでわが国に来航した外国船は大宰府(だざいふ)管内で止められる定めであったから、貴族たちは宋船の大輪田泊来航に驚いた。このころにはわが国の造船・航海技術も進んできたので、大陸貿易はいっそう盛んになった。

［坂本賞三］

社会・経済

『日本霊異記(りょういき)』に収められた8世紀ごろの一説話に、財産の内容として「奴婢(ぬひ)」「馬牛」が記されていたのが、12世紀前期に成った『今昔(こんじゃく)物語集』に収められた同じ説話では、財産の内容が「領シケル田畠」「仕(つかえ)ケル従者」と改められている。このことは平安時代400年間の経済的変化を示す一例である。11世紀から12世紀に荘園(しょうえん)制が展開するのは、田畠を領し従者をもつことが最重視される社会になるとともに中世村落が形成されてきた歴史的動向に基づくのである。

［坂本賞三］

富豪の輩と王臣家荘

平安時代初期の9世紀には奴婢や馬牛などの動産で富が代表されていたが、9世紀後期には富豪の輩(ともがら)の経済的活動が律令(りつりょう)国家支配の大きな障害となっていた。彼ら富豪の輩は稲や銭などを周辺の農民に私出挙(しすいこ)し、また周辺農民の調庸納入をかわりに請け負い、富豪の輩の営田を耕作する農民の賦役をもって元本と利息分とにあて、こうして自らの勢力範囲をつくりあげていた。彼ら富豪の輩は9世紀後期には王臣家と結び付いて、王臣家の権威で国郡に租税を納めなかった。律令国家はこの王臣家荘に対する禁令を繰り返し発した。藤原時平(ときひら)主導の902年（延喜2）の律令制振興策に含まれた延喜(えんぎ)の荘園整理令もその一つである。王朝国家体制への転換によって諸国国内に「名(みょう)」という徴税単位が設けられたが、そこでは富豪の輩の勢力範囲も「名」とされ、国衙(こくが)支配下に位置づけられることになった。

［坂本賞三］

臨時雑役免除の荘園と領域開発の動き

前期王朝国家期の社会的動向として注目されるのは、主として先進地域でみられた臨時雑役(ぞうやく)免除荘園の激増と、全国的にみられた領域開発の動きである。まず臨時雑役免除荘園の激増であるが、王朝国家の税制体系は官物(かんもつ)と臨時雑役とからなり、臨時雑役は国司が免除しうるものであった。畿内(きない)・近国の在地集団は国郡から賦課されてくる臨時雑役を免れるため、ある一つの権門勢家・寺社と身分関係を結び、そこへの奉仕を口実に国司に対して臨時雑役の免除を要求し獲得したが、臨時雑役は田地について賦課・免除されていたので、こうして臨時雑役が免除された田地も荘園の一つであった。11世紀中期には、和泉(いずみ)国（大阪府南部）の大多数、丹波(たんば)国（京都府、兵庫県）の過半数が臨時雑役免除とされていた。このように臨時雑役免除の荘園は、在地の集団が能動的に臨時雑役を免れるための方策をとった結果であって、ここで臨時雑役免除とされた田地は彼ら在地集団が耕作している公田・墾田であり、その墾田は彼らが集団として身分関係を結んだ権門寺社に寄進していたものと考えられる。その後さらにその権門寺社が本来受給すべき国家的給付の代替として官物も免除されるようになると、臨時雑役免除の荘園であったものが一円領有の荘園となる。中世の畿内・近国の権門寺社領荘園の多くはこのようにして成立したものであり、一般的に在地領主をもたないタイプの荘園であった。

　また10世紀末から11世紀にかけて全国的に荒廃田や未開地の開発が進められた結果、中世で所領といわれたものの原型が出現してきた。前期王朝国家体制下では「名(みょう)」制度に規制されて開発田を領域として所有することができなかったが、新興の在地勢力を先頭に集まった農民たちは荒廃田や未開地を開発し、名目的に摂関家に寄進しその威を借りるなどして国郡司の介入を実力で排除していた。そしてこのような新開発地に公田耕作農民が流入したため既存公田が荒廃し、国司は荒廃公田対策に苦しむようになった。11世紀40年代に行われた後期王朝国家体制への転換によって新興在地勢力の領域が公認されたのは、この新興在地勢力を先頭とした新開発の動きを非合法のままで抑圧しようとすれば、もはや国司の任国内支配が維持できなくなったからである。かくて新興在地勢力は、その開発地を新たな行政単位として公認されてその郡司・郷司に補任(ぶにん)され、一転して国衙支配の一端に位置づけられることになった。彼ら新興在地勢力が中世の武士となっていくのだが、武士たちはこのように郡司・郷司に任命されることによって所領内部の支配を固めることができたのであり、平安末期に武士が台頭してくる基盤はここにあったのである。またこのように新たな郡・郷・保などの行政単位が設定された裏には中世的な村落が形成されつつあったことがあり、これら新行政単位が中世荘園の基となるのであった。

［坂本賞三］

中世的所領・荘園の構造

新興在地勢力が郡司・郷司に任命された新行政単位は、その郡司・郷司ら在地領主の立場からいえば所領というわけであるが、その所領内の農民たちは、一般的には在地領主に身分的に従属しない独立的存在であった。在地領主は身分的に従属する所従や下人を多く従えていたが、百姓に対して身分的にはもともと対等であった。ただ彼らは郡司・郷司に任ぜられて国衙行政権をもつがゆえに、その行政単位のなかで百姓たちに公権力で臨むことができた。だからもともと在地領主の支配基盤はあまり強いものではなく、領域内外に存在する同質の在地有力者に郡司・郷司の職を奪われる危険性をもっていた。所定の官物・雑役を国衙に進納できなかったならば国司から所職を改替されてしまうのである。国衙に対する職務を勤めている限り彼らがもつ郡司・郷司の職を子孫に相伝することができたが、その内実は危険に満ちたものであった。

　このような中世的所領の構造はそのまま荘園の構造に通ずるものであり、荘園となると彼ら在地領主は荘官（在地荘官の最高責任者は一般に下司(げし)とよばれた）となったが、やはり同様に改替される危険に脅かされていた。荘園の内部で「名(みょう)」という固定的な徴税組織が出現してくるのはほぼ11世紀末から12世紀にかけてのころであるが、それは、かつて前期王朝国家の諸国国内で「名」という徴税単位が設定されていたのを、荘園の内部で模倣したのであり、ここに出現した荘園内の「名」は中世後期に至るまで固定するのが常であった。

　荘園や公領諸所領の存在形態には地域差がある。たとえば11世紀中期以降の新しい国内行政単位のあり方でも、中部地方東半部から関東・東北地方にかけては郡が基本であり、中部地方西半部から西では郷が行政単位になる性格が強い（郡が行政単位となっていても、その内部で郷の存在が失われていない）。一般に先進地域の荘公所領では在地領主が存在せず根本住人といわれる有力農民たちが村落内を主導するタイプが多く、辺境地域では公権力をもつ在地領主が一族を領域内の各地に配置して強力な支配を行うタイプが多い。一般的には在地領主の下に、在村地主や、名主・在家である平百姓がいて、この在村地主や平百姓が「住人」とよばれて村落構成の中核をなし、彼らも若干の所従・下人を従えていた。平百姓の下位に位置する小(こ)百姓は不安定な小農民であった。ただしこれらの村落内身分は固定的ではなく流動的なものがあった。中世的所領が出現して荘園制が展開していく過程で、在地領主が領域内の支配基盤を強化するため、平百姓を身分的に従属させようとした。平百姓たちはその在地領主の動きに反発し、両者の対立が次の鎌倉時代を通じて社会問題となっていく。

［坂本賞三］

経済の諸問題

農業においては二毛作が12世紀に行われていた。12世紀初期に伊勢(いせ)国（三重県）で水田の裏作に麦を植えていたことを示す史料があり、農民の生活の向上を促進したものと思われる。平安後期には商工業の発展の跡がうかがわれ、権門寺社が商工業者を従えるようになっていた。11世紀中期には諸官衙や王臣家の召使い・雑色人(ぞうしきにん)たちが私機を構えて綾(あや)や錦(にしき)を織り、私利をむさぼっているので、これを停止するよう禁令が出されている。「座」の初見は、1092年（寛治6）の史料にみえる山城(やましろ)国（京都府中・南部）の八瀬(やせ)里における村落の座の事例である。この八瀬里の座は青蓮(しょうれん)院の支配下で、おそらく駕輿丁(かよちょう)を奉仕して臨時雑役免除の特権を得ながら、生業としては薪(たきぎ)売りをしていたものと思われる。また荘園内に、荘園領主が必要とする特定目的に奉仕する手工業者のための給田が設けられた事例が12世紀ごろからみえ始める。これらは荘園領主のために奉仕した事例だが、この背後には商工業の発展が推測されるのであり、平安末期にわが国で銭貨の流通が盛行した事実はそれを裏づける。わが国では皇朝十二銭の鋳造が958年（天徳2）の乾元大宝(けんげんたいほう)を最後として、以後は行われなかった。が、11世紀ごろから宋(そう)銭や唐銭が輸入され始め、1179年（治承3）には、近ごろ天下の上下にわたって銭の病がはやっている、と記されるに至った（『百練抄(ひゃくれんしょう)』）。

［坂本賞三］

民衆の生活

　菅原道真(すがわらのみちざね)が讃岐守(さぬきのかみ)として赴任した886年（仁和2）から4年間に、彼が讃岐国（香川県）の人々の暮らしを同情してつくった「寒早(かんそう)十首」（『菅家文草(かんけぶんそう)』巻3）に次のようなものがある。租税を免れるため本貫(ほんがん)の地を離れて他国に流浪する浮浪人は、かえって逃れ先で税を責め取られている。鹿(しか)の皮の着物も破れ、円形茅葺(かやぶ)きの家一間を住まいとし、子を背負い妻を連れて物ごいに歩いている。賃船を生業とする人はまったく土地ももたず、風波の激しい日にも棹(さお)を操っているが、彼らの望みはただ雇われる機会が多いことだけである。漁業を生業とする人は釣り糸が切れないかと心配しながら魚を釣り、それを売って租税にあてるので、天気や風向きばかりが気がかりである。塩を売る人は海水を煮る仕事に命をすり減らしている。讃岐の風土は製塩に適してはいるが、豪族が利益を独占するので、人々は港で官人に何度も事情を訴えている。国の薬草園で働く人々は賦役として薬草を弁別する作業に従事しているが、わずかの量でも欠けると鞭(むち)で打たれる。ここには農業以外の生業で暮らす人々のありさまも記されていて興味深いが、浮浪人に対する取締りはこの時期までのことであった。「田堵(たと)（田刀）」という用語は平安時代にだけみられたものであるが、その史料的初見は859年（貞観1）の元興寺(がんごうじ)領近江(おうみ)国（滋賀県）愛智荘(えちのしょう)検田帳である。そこでは元興寺から遣わされた田使(でんし)が、田刀ら農民が元興寺田として登録されていた田を他領としてしまい、元興寺に地子(じし)を納めていないことを追及する。田刀とは耕作農民のなかで彼らを代表する立場の者をいうが、田使の追及に対し在地の実情に即して巧みに反論し、田使がようやく寺田を回復するまで10年余りを要したのであった。11世紀には一般に「田堵」と記されているが、それは農業経営に熟達している者という意味である。土地の慣習に詳しい代表者格の者を「旧老田堵」と称した例もあるが、また国から国へと渡り歩きながらその農業経営技術で荘田経営を請け負っている実例もみられる。

　平安時代には百姓が国司の非法を訴えることも多かった。もともと国司は国家の地方行政を現地で執り行う強大な権限をもっているのだが、百姓の側にも国司の不正を中央に訴える権利が認められていた。9世紀初期弘仁(こうにん)年間（810～824）に伊賀国（三重県北西部）百姓がそれを行った実例があるが、9世紀末から10世紀初めにかけて国司を訴える動きが高まっていたことが三善清行(みよしきよゆき)の『意見封事十二箇条』に記されている。その一例として、834年（承和1）から翌年にかけて佐渡国（新潟県）の百姓が、国司が余利を求めて旧館を捨てて新館をつくったり、海浜山沢の利をひとりむさぼるなどをあげて訴えている。次の高まりが10世紀後期から11世紀前期の時期にみられたことは前述した（「政治・外交」参照）。これら諸国の百姓が国司を訴えた事件の高揚期がいずれも国家支配体制転換の直前であったことは注目される。そして両時期とも百姓の上訴によって国司たちが大きな打撃を受けていたのであった。

　945年（天慶8）京では東西の国々から諸神が入京するという噂(うわさ)が広まっていた。その神の名は志多羅(しだら)神とか小藺笠(こいがさ)神とか八面神とかいわれていた。7月末になって志多羅神と号する神輿(しんよ)三前(まえ)が数百人の人々に担がれて摂津（大阪府、兵庫県）の河辺(かわのべ)郡から豊島(てしま)郡に入ってきた。その神輿は、菅原道真の霊を祀(まつ)った自在天神の額がかかったものと、宇佐春王(うさはるおう)三子と、住吉神との三前であった。そこへ道俗男女貴賤(きせん)老少を問わず群衆が集まってきて昼夜を分かたず踊り狂った。そして歌舞のなかを神輿は東方の島下(しまのしも)郡へと向かったが、この間に新たに神輿三前が加わったようで、群衆の数も数千、数万と増大して山崎郷に至り、さらに石清水八幡宮(いわしみずはちまんぐう)に入って大群衆が奉幣し歌舞した。この間、群衆は志多羅の神の名を詠み込んだ歌をうたっていたが、それは農民の祝い歌であって、その文言の一部分は田遊(たあそび)の歌として現在までも伝えられている。このようなことは1012年（長和1）にもあり、鎮西(ちんぜい)から設楽(しだら)神が上洛(じょうらく)している。かような現象は、それまでの地域的・封鎖的な信仰を破って、広く一般民衆の信仰へと拡大したものであり、また「荒田開かむ」などという歌詞は、そのころ農村の主導的地位にあった田堵たちの積極的な動きを表現したものであった。

　先述した菅原道真の「寒早十首」のなかに漁業を生業とする人々を描いたものがある。彼ら海民のなかには、あるいは天皇に御贄(みにえ)を貢進する供御人(くごにん)となったり、あるいは諸社の神人(じにん)となって奉仕するかわりに特権を保護されている者もあったが、彼らは田畑をもつことなく、海上で生業を営んでいた。ところが11世紀後期ごろから、これら海民のなかで、定着して田畑をも耕作するもの、漁獲物の交易によって商業を行うもの、船による輸送に重点を置くものなどが分化してくる。このことは社会的分業が発達してきたことの現れであった。

［坂本賞三］

文化

唐風文化の受容による達成

大陸文化の吸収・消化に努めてきた日本では、9世紀にはその度が進み、大陸文化形式による文化的表現を行うようになってきた。最澄(さいちょう)と空海(くうかい)は同時に入唐(にっとう)し、最澄は天台宗を伝え、空海は真言密教を学んで帰国し真言宗を開いた。天台宗も密教の色彩を濃くしていき、鎮護国家と現世利益(りやく)の秘密修法を国家的・政治的な要請によって修し盛行したが、その後、王朝国家体制に転換した10世紀ごろからは、貴族の個人的要請によって貴族の日常生活のなかに入っていくようになるのである。一方、仏教は9世紀には本格的に地方に浸透してゆくようになり、地方における造寺・造仏は一段と盛んになった。神仏習合の動きがこの時期に顕著になるのは、旧来の共同体が解体に向かって、仏教が民衆のなかに浸透しつつある過程でみられるもので、それに伴って神の観念も変化して神に人格的な性格が現れ、祖先神として歴史上の人物を祀(まつ)ることもみられるようになった。9世紀には、漢文学や法典その他で日本の人々が著作を出すようになってくる。9世紀前期には、漢文学の教養は「文章は経国の大業」として『凌雲(りょううん)集』『文華秀麗(ぶんかしゅうれい)集』『経国集』らの勅撰(ちょくせん)漢詩文集が編纂(へんさん)され、法律関係では、養老令(ようろうりょう)の解釈を国家的に統一した『令義解(りょうのぎげ)』が出された。9世紀後期には『田氏(でんし)家集』『紀家(きけ)集』『菅家文草(かんけぶんそう)』『菅家後集(こうしゅう)』など私家漢詩文集が出され、漢文学の形式をとりながら日本人の感情を表現する日本漢文学の作品が現れてきた。また一時は漢文学隆盛の陰になっていた和歌も9世紀後期には表面に現れてきて六歌仙が出た。仏像彫刻の面では、奈良時代と変わってこの時期には一木造が主流となり、また密教の流行に伴って密教的な彫刻が現れ、曼荼羅(まんだら)が作成されたが、そこには密教絵画の技法がみられた。書では空海、嵯峨(さが)天皇、橘逸勢(たちばなのはやなり)の「平安の三筆」が出た。

［坂本賞三］

国風文化

10世紀ごろから世に国風(こくふう)文化といわれるような日本の風土や人々の感情から生み出された文化が各分野で現れてくるが、長い間大陸文化を摂取してきて、これを自らのものとして駆使するに至ったことを示す。10世紀の初め唐が滅亡し、ついで朝鮮半島でも新羅(しらぎ)にかわって高麗(こうらい)が建国したが、このような政治情勢のもとで大陸から文化的な強い影響を受けることがなかったことも関係があったであろう。仮名の成立は国風文化の形成を象徴するものである。もともと漢文は日本の言語と関係のない文章表現であったが、その漢字を使って日本の言語を表現する手法はすでに万葉仮名として使われていた。この手法の延長線上で字形がくふうされてきたのである。片仮名は仏典などの漢字を読む際に便宜的に使われ始めていた。また万葉仮名を記すにあたって漢字を草体に崩した草(そう)仮名が使われ始めていたが、両者ともしだいに整理され、草仮名の系が平仮名になって、10世紀初期には仮名が成立した。905年（延喜5）に撰上された最初の勅撰和歌集である『古今和歌集』が仮名で記されていたことは、仮名が勅撰集に用いられたということで歴史的意義をもつものであった。以後「三代集」と称されるような勅撰和歌集が相次いで撰進され、自由な文章表現ができることから私的な場で日常的に使われるようになっていった。それに伴って『竹取物語』『伊勢(いせ)物語』『大和(やまと)物語』などの物語が著されてきたが、ここでは私的世界の細かい感情が、和歌の表現と違ってストーリーとして構成された物語という形式で表現されたのであった。摂関時代に現れた『枕草子(まくらのそうし)』『源氏物語』は文学の最高級の作品とされている。このころも漢文が公的な地位を占めていたのであるが、漢詩と和歌とが同じ場で詠まれるようになり、また朗詠が流行するなかで、漢詩とその趣(おもむき)にあった和歌とをあわせ載せた『和漢朗詠集』が撰された。この時期の書では三蹟(さんせき)といわれた小野道風(おののとうふう)、藤原佐理(すけまさ)、藤原行成(ゆきなり)が出て、行成の草仮名の書など国風の趣を強めた。

　建築では日本の風土に適した構造の寝殿造ができて、そのための装飾として内部に置かれた障子や屏風(びょうぶ)には、日本の題材を描いた大和絵(やまとえ)が現れてきた。仏教では、密教の修法(しゅほう)が王朝世界で行われる一方で、天台教学のなかから生まれた浄土教が流行した。10世紀に空也(くうや)が京の市井で念仏を説いたが、10世紀末に源信(げんしん)が著した『往生(おうじょう)要集』は僧侶(そうりょ)や貴族たちの間で広く読まれて浄土教の社会的流布に大きな役割を果たした。11世紀に政治的・社会的不安が深刻化してくると末法思想が僧侶のみならず貴族や地方の人々にも広まり、1052年（永承7）に末法に入るという説が絶望感をあおった。かくて極楽(ごくらく)浄土への願望が強まり、貴族たちは阿弥陀(あみだ)堂をつくって極楽浄土を現出しようとし、それが彼らの日常生活の場として使われるまでになったが、そこにみられた絵画や彫刻などで浄土教芸術が展開した。藤原頼通(よりみち)がつくった宇治の平等院鳳凰(ほうおう)堂は当時のおもかげを伝えるもので、堂内の阿弥陀如来(にょらい)像は定朝(じょうちょう)の作であって、このころ完成されてきた寄木(よせぎ)造の手法によるものである。寄木造によって、一木造ではできない大型の仏像をつくることが可能になり、また仏師の集団が組織されて、分業によって製作することができるようになった。

［坂本賞三］

地方への関心と文化の地方伝播

後期王朝国家体制への転換は諸国で新興在地勢力が台頭してきた結果であるが、それは、既存の国家支配秩序に安住していた貴族にもはや昔日の夢を追うことはできないことを告げ知らせたものであった。院政期ごろには、王朝貴族文化の世界に地方社会への関心がみられるようになるとともに、文化が地方に及んでいった。『栄花(えいが)物語』の正編は長元(ちょうげん)（1028～37）ごろの成立と考えられているが、続編や『大鏡(おおかがみ)』の成立は摂関時代より後の成立と推定されている。ここでは摂関家の全盛が物語で叙述されており、急激な社会情勢の変化のなかで歴史を回顧する貴族たちの意識が観取される。一方、台頭してきた武士の世界を述べた『陸奥話記(むつわき)』や、『日本霊異記(りょういき)』の系譜を引きながらも新たに武士や庶民たちの社会の題材を加えた『今昔(こんじゃく)物語集』が現れ、後白河(ごしらかわ)法皇の編著である『梁塵秘抄(りょうじんひしょう)』には広い地域の広範な階層の人々の今様(いまよう)歌謡群が収められている。院政期に京の文化が地方に及んでいったことを示す好例として次のようなものがある。奥州平泉の中尊寺金色(こんじき)堂は、この地方を支配した藤原氏三代の栄耀(えいよう)のさまをいまにしのばせるものである。また西においては豊後(ぶんご)国富貴(ふき)寺の阿弥陀堂がある。安芸(あき)国厳島(いつくしま)神社は、平氏の熱烈な信仰を受けたことから、平氏全盛期に上皇や貴族の厳島参詣(さんけい)が流行し、急速に歴史上にクローズアップされてきた。同社に伝えられてきた平家納経は豪華な装飾経で、平氏一門全盛期の栄華と平安文化の絢爛(けんらん)さをしのばせる。

［坂本賞三］

『『岩波講座　日本歴史4　古代4』『岩波講座　日本歴史4　古代4（新版）』（1962、1976・岩波書店）』▽『土田直鎮著『日本の歴史5　王朝の貴族』（1965・中央公論社）』▽『坂本賞三著『日本の歴史6　摂関時代』（1974・小学館）』▽『稲垣泰彦・戸田芳実編『日本民衆の歴史2　土一揆と内乱』（1974・三省堂）』

[参照項目] | 王朝国家 | 鎌倉時代[年表] | 平安時代（年表）

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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