A general term for art created in the Indian subcontinent (present-day India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan) since the 3rd millennium BC, more precisely "South Asian art." In this article, we will use the term "Indian art" as a general rule, and "India" is used synonymously with "South Asia" rather than limiting it to the Republic of India. Most Indian art is religious art based on the native Indian religions of Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism, or the imported religion of Islam, and is characterized by strong religious and unique sensuality, which has had a great influence on art in other parts of Asia. In ancient times, Buddhism led creative activity, while Hindu art gradually flourished from the end of antiquity and reached its peak in the early Middle Ages. Jainism, although somewhat small-scale, developed its own unique art for a long time throughout ancient and medieval times. However, the art of these three religions shows little difference between religions, and differences between eras and regions are greater. In the late Middle Ages, Islam, an imported religion, spread, leaving behind religious architecture in various places that was different from traditional architecture. Most sculptures were made of stone, but stucco (plastic clay), terracotta (fired clay), and bronze were also used. Of paintings, only a few murals remain, and miniature paintings were popular in the late Middle Ages. Stone was the main building material, but brick was also used. In the three indigenous Indian religions, temples were adorned with sculptures and murals, and architecture, sculpture, and painting are inseparably related. [Takashi Koizuka] PrehistoryThe history of Indian art begins with the Indus Valley Civilization. This ancient civilization flourished in a wide area centered on the Indus River basin from about 2350 BC to about 1700 BC. It consisted of a few cities and numerous settlements, and the representative cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa had well-planned public buildings and residential buildings made of brick and complete sewers, but no temples, palaces, or royal tombs. Stone and bronze sculptures excavated only from urban ruins are few, but some are small but have been created using well-trained techniques and are extremely realistic. On the other hand, terracotta sculptures and clay figurines are widely distributed and show a simple style. Seals, which are considered to be indicators of this civilization, are mainly made of talc (a collection of fine talc particles) and are engraved with undeciphered characters and depictions of cows, unicorns, other animals, and tree gods. This civilization was not isolated, and there is ample evidence that it was inherited by later Hindu culture. [Takashi Koizuka] Early AntiquityThe Aryan people migrated to India around 1500 BCE and played an important role in the formation and development of Indian culture. However, the Vedic religion (Brahmanism) introduced by the Aryans was centered on rituals and did not require temples or statues, so there is a blank record for about 1000 years after that. Architecture using durable materials appeared around the time of the rise of Buddhism, and artistic activity began in earnest around the time of King Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE. That is, the king built stupas (Buddhist towers) all over India and erected stone pillars with animal capitals. Even though stone carving techniques were imported from ancient Persia, the refined style, exemplified by the four lion capitals unearthed at Sarnath, is amazing. The production of statues of guardian deities also began around this time. There are also many fascinating terracotta sculptures. In the 2nd century BC, stone was used for stupas and they were decorated with reliefs of Buddhist themes. Stupas are tombs that house the remains of the Buddha. They usually have a parapet (stone fence) around the hemispherical bowl, and a tower gate on the front or on all four sides. Buddhist stories such as the biography of Buddha and the tale of Buddha's past life, as well as animal and plant motifs, were carved into the parapet and tower gate. After the parapet of Sanchi 2nd Pagoda (late 2nd century BC), the tower gate and parapet of Bharkhut Pagoda (early 1st century BC), the parapet of Bodhgaya Vihara (late 1st century BC), and others, the peak was reached with the tower gate of Sanchi 1st Pagoda (early 1st century BC). The construction of rock-cut temples also flourished, and many Buddhist rock-cut caves were opened in the northern end of the Deccan Plateau in western India between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD. Cave temples consist of shrine caves with stupas at the back and monastery caves, and the most famous are those at Baja, Ajanta and Kalar. These early rock-cut temples are generally simple, retaining much of the style of wooden architecture, and have little decoration in the form of reliefs or paintings. However, the ancient paintings in Ajanta Cave 9 and 10 are the oldest surviving Buddhist paintings, dating back to around the time of Christ. The most notable feature of early ancient Buddhist art is that it never depicted the figure of Buddha, and even in reliefs depicting the life of Buddha, with Buddha as the main character, the Buddha's presence is merely suggested by the Dharma wheel, pedestal, footprints, parasol cover and Bodhi tree. [Takashi Koizuka] Middle Ancient PeriodThis period from the mid-1st century to the early 4th century is characterized by the appearance of Buddhist statues. The Gandhara region in northern Pakistan, centered around present-day Peshawar, was ruled by a succession of foreign ethnic groups, including the Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans, from the 2nd century BCE onwards, and was a region marked by the influence of foreign cultures. Artistic activity in the region began in the mid-1st century by the Parthians, who were fascinated by Greek culture, but it dealt with non-Buddhist themes. The Kushans then built a great empire that dominated the area from southern Central Asia to the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, opening the way for direct negotiations with the Roman world, and the fusion of Indian Buddhist thought and Western artistic techniques gave birth to Gandharan Buddhist art. The figure of Buddha naturally appeared in reliefs depicting the life of Buddha, which is thought to have occurred at the end of the 1st century, but there are other theories. Then, around the time of King Kanishka in the mid-2nd century, individual Buddha statues began to be made. This art centered on stone carving reached its peak in the second half of the 2nd century and declined in the mid-3rd century, but stucco sculpture developed in the 4th and 5th centuries. There are countless ruins in the Gandhara region, including Takht-i-Bahi, as well as in the Swat region to the north, parts of the Punjab region such as Taxila to the east, and parts of Afghanistan such as Hadda, which is famous for its stucco sculpture. In short, Gandhara art was developed under the influence of the exchange of Eastern and Western cultures, such as Indian culture, Hellenistic culture, Roman culture, and Iranian culture. They preferred concrete and realistic expressions, and produced many reliefs depicting the deeds of Buddha in detail. The appearance and clothing of the figures are Western-style and well-groomed. Meanwhile, even within India, where there had been no representation of Buddha until then, Mathura in the northwest, which was also under the rule of the Kushan Empire, began to produce Buddhist statues in the early 2nd century. However, unlike Gandhara, which was heavily influenced by the West, the style of their work was based on the ancient Indian tradition of wildness and sensuality that emphasized the strength of the body, and this powerful sculpture had a great influence on workshops throughout India. Jain art also flourished in the area, leaving behind many statues of the patriarchs, whose appearance is not much different from that of Buddha. Yakshis, goddesses of fertility and fertility, created by both Buddhists and Jains, are female figures that flaunt their voluptuous bodies, adding variety and richness to the Mathura sculptures. Statues of Kushan kings and warriors dressed in Iranian-style clothing are also important. At this time in South India, the Satavahana dynasty was dominant, and in the 1st to 3rd centuries Amaravati and other places produced Buddhist sculptures that excelled in their supple and varied group representations. This tradition was continued by the next Ikshvak dynasty, Nagarjunakonda (mid-3rd century to mid-4th century). [Takashi Koizuka] Late AntiquityThe 300 years between the rise of the Gupta dynasty (320) and the collapse of the empire under King Harsha (647) was a period in which classical Indian culture flourished and the classical style was perfected in the field of plastic art. In Buddhist art, emphasis was placed on the production of Buddhist statues, and in the two major workshops of Mathura and Sarnath, statues that could be said to be the epitome of ideal beauty and high spirituality were created. Mathura sculpture, which had become formulaic in the second half of the 3rd century, regained its vitality in the early 5th century, becoming more refined and mature. The eyes are half-closed, giving the statue a calm and dignified appearance, and the robe that covers both shoulders is tight to the body and has folds all over it with flowing relief lines. In the second half of the 5th century, sculpture production also became popular at Sarnath, and young and gentle statues of Buddha were produced, with robes that were tight to the body and had no folds at all. In western India, construction of caves resumed in the 5th century, and by the 8th century, construction had continued from the earlier period at Ajanta, Aurangabad, Kanhehri, and other sites, with new excavations also taking place at Bagh and Ellora. During this later period, monastery caves underwent remarkable development, with Buddhist halls being installed, and their interiors were lavishly decorated not only with reliefs but also with murals. Ajanta Caves 1 and 2 (late 5th century to early 6th century) and Caves 16 and 17 (late 5th century) are particularly rich in excellent murals. These are done in the tempera technique, and although the number of colors is limited, the contrasts between the vivid colors are beautiful, and the walls and ceilings are beautifully decorated with narrative paintings and animal and plant motifs, all done with skilled brushwork. This was also the period when Hindu creative activity began, preparing the way for the subsequent flourishing of the Early Middle Ages. Representative remains from this early period are the Udayagiri Caves (early 5th century) and the Vishnu Temple at Deoghar (first half of the 6th century), and many excellent pieces have also been excavated from Mathura. Furthermore, the large-scale rock caves and magnificent sculptures on Elephanta Island in Mumbai (Bombay) Bay became the forerunners of the next generation of Hindu art in South India. [Takashi Koizuka] Early Middle AgesBuddhism gradually declined after the 7th century, and the early Middle Ages up to the 13th century was the heyday of Hindu art. Buddhist art flourished for the last time in Nalanda, Bodhgaya, Ratnagiri and other places under the patronage of the Pala dynasty, which ruled eastern India from the 8th to 12th centuries. Although sculptures became more delicate and intricate, the style also tended to become more formulaic. Furthermore, with the rise of esoteric Buddhism, the variety of sacred statues increased and their appearances became more diverse. Buddhism declined towards the end of the 12th century under pressure from Islam, but the influence of the Pala style extended to Nepal, Tibet and Southeast Asia. Hinduism, which replaced Buddhism as the dominant religion, was active in creative endeavors under the three dynasties of Chalukya, Pallava and Pandya, which competed for prosperity in southern India from the 6th to 8th centuries. Chalukya sculpture is characterized by the expression of soft, fleshy yet full bodies, and they have left rock caves and stone temples in Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal. Pallava sculpture excels in the expression of groups of figures with soft, moving bodies, and representative ruins can be found in Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram. The Rashtrakuta dynasty, which overthrew the Chalukya dynasty in 757 and gained independence, excavated large-scale Hindu rock caves in Ellora, leaving behind numerous reliefs of impressive male gods and voluptuous, graceful goddesses. In North India, various dynasties continued to separate, and stone-built temples with towering main halls, unique to North India, were built in Khajuraho (9th-13th century) under the Chandela dynasty, and in Bhubaneshwar (7th-13th century), Puri (11th-12th century), and Konark (13th century) in the Orissa region. On the other hand, the main halls of Hindu temples in South India are pyramidal and not very tall, and later they began to compete with each other for the height of their tower gates. As the influence of Islam was weaker in South India than in North India, their activity continued for a long time, and temples in Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Srirangam, Madurai, and other places were built by the Chola dynasty (9th-13th century), Hoysala dynasty (12th-14th century), Vijayanagar Empire (14th-16th century), and Nayaka dynasty (17th-18th century), among others. [Takashi Koizuka] Late Middle AgesIslamic culture began to influence India in the early 8th century, but Islamic creative activity did not begin in earnest until the end of the 12th century. As Islam rejects idols, Islamic art was primarily architecture, with mosques (masjids) and tombs at its core. At first, traditional Indian architecture was strongly influenced, with the Qutub Minar in Delhi (c. 1200) being a representative example. The Mughal Empire, established in the 16th century, adopted Persian techniques and perfected Indo-Islamic architecture, characterized by balanced uniformity with large domes and arches. Famous examples include Humayun's Tomb in Delhi (c. 1565), the palace at Fatehpur Sikri (1569-1585), and the Taj Mahal in Agra (1632-1643). Miniature paintings were produced in abundance from the 16th to 19th centuries. There are two schools of painting, Mughal and Rajput, the former developed in the Mughal court painting academy by inheriting Persian miniature painting and adopting European painting techniques, and is mainly composed of historical records, genre paintings of people, animals and plants, while the latter was popular in the Rajput kingdoms, which were the warrior class, and although the subject matter was Hindu mythology, it had a strong lyrical and popular character. [Takashi Koizuka] Modern and contemporaryWhen British rule was established in India in the second half of the 18th century, India's economic climate was completely destroyed and traditional culture declined. Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), the son of a cousin of the poet Rabindranath Tagore, started an art movement calling for a return to traditional culture, and a group of artists known as the Bengali School, including painters such as Jamini Roy (1887-1972) and Amrita Shergil (1913-1941), and sculptors such as Ramkinkar Baij (1906/1910-1980), became active. Other notable artists who have been active since the time of the Partition of India and Pakistan in 1947 include, in India, the painters Maqbool Fida Husain (1915-2011), Francis Newton Souza (1924-2002), Sayed Haidar Raza (1922-2016), K. G. Ramanujam (1941-1973), and the sculptor Anishi Kapoor (1954- ), and in Pakistan, the painters Abdur Rehman Chughtai (1894/1897-1975), Sadequain Naqvi (1930-1987), Ahmed Parvez (1946-1959), and others. Examples of prominent figures in the country include the Indian sculptor Ibn Parvez (1926-1979), sculptor Shahid Sajjad (1936-2014), and in Bangladesh the painter Zainul Abedin (1914-1976), among others. [Takashi Koizuka] "Indian Art" by Takada Osamu and Ueno Teruo (1965, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)" ▽ "Oriental Art II" edited by Machida Koichi (1977, Obunsha)" ▽ "Indian Art" edited by Sawa Takaken (1978, Bijutsu Shuppansha)" ▽ "Asahi Encyclopedia of World Art 83, 84 Indian Art I, II" edited by Koizuka Takashi (both 1979, Asahi Shimbun)" ▽ "Iconology of Buddhist Art - From India to Japan" by Miyaji Akira (1999, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Indian Art" by Ueno Teruo (1985, Chuokoron-Bijutsu Shuppan) ▽ "Introduction to Indian Buddhist Art" by Ito Teruji (1986, Yuzankaku) ▽ "A Comprehensive View of the History of Indian Art" by Yamamoto Tomonori (2 volumes, 1990, Mainichi Shimbun)" ▽ "Buddhist Art - Indian Sculpture" edited and published by Iwanami Shoten (1990) ▽ "NHK British Museum 4: The Blooming of Indian Buddhist Art" edited by Nara Yasuaki and the NHK Reporting Team (1991, Japan Broadcasting Publishing Association) ▽ "Hindu Architecture - The Meaning and Form of Hindu Temples" by George Mitchell, translated by Kamiya Takeo (1993, Kashima Publishing Co.) ▽ "Contemporary Indian Art: Glenborough Museum Collection" edited and published by Glenborough Japan (1993, Seiunsha) ▽ "World Art Encyclopedia: Oriental Volumes 13 and 14, India 1 and 2" edited by Koizuka Takashi and Miya Haruaki (1998, 2000, Shogakukan) ▽ "Illustrated Gods of Eros - Sun Temples and Tantric Art in India and Nepal" by Fukuda Kazuhiko (2000, Kawade Shobo Shinsha) ▽ "Ajanta and Ellora - India's Deccan Plateau, Cave Temples and Murals" written by Tachikawa Musashi and photographed by Omura Tsugugo (2000, Shueisha)" ▽ "Ajanta Murals" by Takada Osamu and Omura Tsugugo (2000, NHK Publishing)" ▽ "Iwanami World Art: Indian Art" written by Vidya Dehejia, translated by Miya Haruaki and Hiraoka Mihoko (2002, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "History of Indian Art" by Miya Haruaki (2009, Yoshikawa Kobunkan) [References] | | | | | |Indus |Udayagiri Caves| | |Aurangabad| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Thanjavur| |Nagarjunakonda| | | | | | | | | | |Buddhism| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Cave 26 (Chaitya Cave). It has a horseshoe-shaped plan, a vast interior, and a high ceiling. The colonnade is imposing, and at the back is a stupa with a carved image of the deity making the preaching mudra. Part of the Ajanta Caves, a World Heritage Site (India, registered in 1983) Ajanta, India ©Shogakukan "> Ajanta cave temples This is a representative temple among the more than 100 cave temples remaining in the area. Most of them date back to the Gupta period or later, but Cave 3 dates back to an earlier period. Near Mumbai, India ©Shogakukan "> Kanheli Caves Cave 3 Of all the caves, the 16th cave, Kailasanatha, is architecturally the most interesting. It is a single-stone structure carved from a huge block of rock. World Heritage Site "Ellora Caves" (India, registered in 1983) Aurangabad, India ©Shogakukan "> Ellora cave temples A bust of Lord Shiva carved into the south wall of the first cave. It is 5.5m tall and as imposing as a rock mountain. World Heritage Site "Elephanta Caves" (India, registered in 1987) Elephanta Island, India ©Shogakukan "> Three-faced Shiva at Elephanta cave temple The mausoleum was built by Shah Jahan, the fifth ruler of the Mughal dynasty, for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died at a young age. It took 22 years to complete in 1654. It is the pinnacle of Indo-Islamic architecture and has been called a "dream of marble." The central dome is 58 meters high. World Heritage Site "Taj Mahal" (India, registered in 1983) Suburban Agra, India ©Shogakukan "> Taj Mahal 2000-1750 BC, bronze, 14cm high, owned by the Harappa Metropolitan Museum of Art, Pakistan Statue of a woman riding two bulls 1000-500 BC, terracotta, 23.5cm, North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan, Metropolitan Museum of Art Female clay figurine Kushan Dynasty (2nd century) Red sandstone Height: 85cm Mathura, India Collection of the Chicago Art Institute Yakshi Statue 3rd century, schist, height 92.7 cm, Pakistan (probably Takht-i-Bahi), Metropolitan Museum of Art Buddha statue 5th-6th century Stucco (clay) Height 19.1 cm Afghanistan (probably Hadda) Metropolitan Museum of Art Buddha head statue Pallava dynasty (6th-7th century) Bronze Height: 37.5cm Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Andhra Pradesh, India Standing Goddess Statue From the epic poem "Hamzanama." Circa 1564-1569. Cloth, paper, watercolor, gold. 68.6 cm (length) x 54 cm (width) . Collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . "The Night Attack of Asad ibn Khalibah" Circa 1750, watercolor on paper, 45.7cm length x 32.1cm width, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art Radha, Krishna's Beloved Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
インド亜大陸(現在のインド、ネパール、ブータン、バングラデシュ、スリランカ、パキスタン、アフガニスタンの一部)で、紀元前三千年紀以来行われた美術の総称で、より厳密には「南アジア美術」。本項では慣例に従って「インド美術」とよび、「インド」をインド共和国に限定するのではなく、「南アジア」とほぼ同義に用いる。インド美術は、そのほとんどが、インド固有の仏教、ジャイナ教、ヒンドゥー教、あるいは外来のイスラム教に基づく宗教美術であり、強い宗教性と独得の官能性とを顕著な特色とし、アジア各地の美術に多大な影響を及ぼした。古代には仏教が造形活動を主導し、ヒンドゥー教美術は古代末期からしだいに盛んになり、中世前期に最盛期を迎えた。ジャイナ教はやや小規模ながら古代、中世を通じて長く独自の美術を展開した。しかしこれら3宗教の美術では、宗教による違いは少なく、時代や地域による差異のほうが大きい。中世後期には外来のイスラム教が普及し、従来のものとは異質な宗教建築を各地に残している。彫刻は石彫が大部分で、ほかにストゥッコ(塑土)、テラコッタ(焼成粘土)、ブロンズ(青銅)も用いられた。絵画のうち壁画の遺例はごく限られ、中世後期には細密画(ミニアチュール)が盛行した。建築用材は石が主で、ほかにれんがもある。インド固有の3宗教では、寺院は彫刻や壁画で荘厳(しょうごん)され、建築、彫刻、絵画は不可分の関係にある。 [肥塚 隆] 先史時代インド美術の歴史はインダス文明に始まる。この古代文明は、インダス川流域を中心とする広範な地域で、紀元前2350年ごろから紀元前1700年ごろまで栄えた。少数の都市と多数の集落からなり、代表都市であるモヘンジョ・ダーロやハラッパーでは、整然とした都市計画のもとに公共の建物や一般住宅がれんがでつくられ、下水道が完備されていたが、神殿、宮殿、王墓などはみられない。都市遺跡にのみ出土する石やブロンズの彫刻は数少ないものの、小形ながら習熟した技法になり、きわめて写実的な作品もある。一方、テラコッタ彫刻や土偶は広く分布し、素朴な作風を示す。またこの文明の指標とされる印章は、おもに凍石(微粒な滑石の集合体)製で、未解読の文字とともに牛、一角獣その他の動物、樹神などを陰刻している。この文明は孤立したものではなく、後のヒンドゥー文化に継承されたと考えうる証拠も少なくない。 [肥塚 隆] 古代初期前1500年を中心にアーリア人が移住し、インド文化の形成発展に重要な役割を果たした。しかしアーリア人が伝えたベーダの宗教(バラモン教)はもっぱら祭祀(さいし)を中心とし神殿や神像を必要としなかったため、それ以後約1000年間は資料的に空白である。仏教興起のころより耐久材料を用いた建築が現れ、前3世紀マウリヤ朝のアショカ王のころより造形活動は本格化する。すなわち王は、インド各地にストゥーパ(仏塔)を造立し、動物柱頭をもつ石柱を立てた。石彫技法は古代ペルシアから移入されたとしても、サールナート出土の4頭背中あわせのライオン柱頭に代表される洗練された作風は驚嘆に値する。また守護神像の制作もこのころより始まった。さらにテラコッタ彫刻に魅力ある作品が少なくない。 前2世紀になるとストゥーパに石材が用いられ、仏教的な主題の浮彫りで飾られるようになった。ストゥーパは仏陀(ぶっだ)の遺骨を納める墳墓で、本体である半球形の覆鉢(ふくはつ)の周囲に欄楯(らんじゅん)(玉垣)を巡らし、正面または四方に塔門を建てるのが通例である。その欄楯や塔門には、仏伝(仏陀の伝記)や本生譚(ほんしょうたん)(仏陀の前生の物語)などの仏教説話や動植物文様その他が浮彫りされた。サーンチー第2塔欄楯(前2世紀末)、バールフト塔の塔門と欄楯(前1世紀初頭)、ボードガヤー大精舎(しょうじゃ)の欄楯(前1世紀後半)などを経て、サーンチー第1塔塔門(1世紀初頭)に至って頂点に達した。石窟(せっくつ)寺院の造営も盛行し、西インドのデカン高原北端に前2~後2世紀に多数の仏教石窟が開かれた。奥にストゥーパを安置する祠堂(しどう)窟と僧院窟とから窟院が形成され、バージャー、アジャンタ、カールラーなどのものが名高い。これら前期石窟は全般に簡素で、木造建築の形式をかなり残し、浮彫りや絵画による装飾も少ない。ただし、アジャンタ第9、第10窟の古画は、紀元前後にさかのぼる仏教絵画最古の遺品である。ところで古代初期の仏教美術のもっとも目だった特徴は、いかなる場合にも仏陀の姿を表現しなかった点にあり、仏陀を主人公とする仏伝図浮彫りにおいても法輪、台座、足跡(そくせき)、傘蓋(さんがい)、菩提樹(ぼだいじゅ)などによって仏陀の存在を示唆するにすぎない。 [肥塚 隆] 古代中期1世紀中葉から4世紀前半までのこの時期は、仏像の出現に特色づけられる。パキスタンの北部、現在のペシャワルを中心とするガンダーラ地方は、前2世紀からインド・ギリシア人、サカ人、パルティア人、クシャーナ(クシャン)人など異民族の相次ぐ支配を受け、外来文化の影響が顕著な地域であった。当地の造形活動は、ギリシア系文物を愛好したパルティア人により1世紀中葉に始まるが、それは非仏教的な主題を扱ったものであった。ついでクシャン人は、中央アジア南部からインド亜大陸北西部を領有する大帝国を築き、直接ローマ世界と交渉する道も開かれ、インドの仏教思想と西方の造形技法とが融合してガンダーラの仏教美術が生まれた。仏陀の姿は仏伝図浮彫りにごく自然に出現し、それは1世紀末のことと考えられるが、異説もある。そして2世紀中葉のカニシカ王のころには単独の仏像もつくられるようになった。この石彫中心の美術は、2世紀後半に最盛期を迎え、3世紀中葉には衰えるが、4~5世紀にはストゥッコ彫刻が展開した。その遺跡は、タフティ・バヒーをはじめとしてガンダーラ地方では枚挙にいとまなく、その北のスワート地方、東のタキシラなどパンジャーブ地方の一部、ストゥッコ彫刻で有名なハッダなどのアフガニスタンの一部にも及ぶ。 要するにガンダーラ美術は、インド文化とヘレニズム・ローマ文化およびイラン文化など東西文化の交流が刺激となって展開したもので、具体的、現実的な表現を好み、仏陀の事跡をこと細かに描く多数の仏伝図浮彫りを制作した。また人物の容貌(ようぼう)や服装は西方風であり、よく整っている。一方、それまで仏陀の姿を表現することのなかったインド内部でも、同じクシャーナ朝(クシャン朝)の支配下にあった北西部のマトゥラで2世紀初頭には仏像を制作するようになった。しかしその作風は西方の影響の濃いガンダーラのそれとは異なり、肉体の力を強調した野性的なあるいは官能的なインド古来の伝統に基づくものであり、この力量感あふれる彫刻は、以後のインド各地の工房に多大の影響を与えた。また当地ではジャイナ教美術も栄え、多数の祖師像を残していて、その像容は仏陀像と大差ない。仏教、ジャイナ教を問わずつくられた豊穣(ほうじょう)・多産の女神ヤクシーは、豊かな肉体を誇示した女性像で、マトゥラの彫刻に変化と潤いを与えている。またイラン風の服装をしたクシャン朝の諸王や戦士の像も重要である。 このころ南インドではサータバーハナ朝が優勢で、1~3世紀にアマラバティなどでしなやかで変化に富む群像表現に秀でた仏教彫刻が生み出された。その伝統は次のイクシュバーク朝のナーガールジュナコンダ(3世紀中葉から4世紀中葉)に継承された。 [肥塚 隆] 古代末期グプタ朝の興起(320)からハルシャ王一代の帝国の崩壊(647)までの300年余りは、インド古典文化が高揚し、造形美術の面でも古典様式の完成をみた時期である。仏教美術では仏像制作に重点が置かれ、マトゥラとサールナートの二大工房において、高い精神性を備えた理想美の典型ともいうべき仏像が成立した。3世紀後半に形式化したマトゥラ彫刻も、5世紀初頭にはふたたび生気を取り戻し、洗練され円熟味を増した。その目はなかば閉じて落ち着きと威厳を備え、両肩を覆ってまとった衣は体に密着し、流麗な陽刻線によって全面にひだを表した。5世紀後半にはサールナートでもにわかに造像が盛んとなり、体に密着した衣にはひだをまったく表さず、若々しく温和な仏像を生み出した。西インドでは5世紀になると石窟の造営が再開され、8世紀ごろまでにアジャンタ、オーランガーバード(アウランガーバード)、カーンヘリーなどで前期に続いて造営されたほか、新しくバーグやエローラでも開掘された。この後期には僧院窟が仏堂を備えるなど目覚ましい発達を遂げ、内部は浮彫りのみならず壁画でも華やかに荘厳された。なかでもアジャンタ第1、第2窟(5世紀末~6世紀前半)、第16、第17窟(5世紀後半)には、優れた壁画が豊富に残っている。それらはテンペラ画の技法になり、色数は少ないが鮮やかな色の対比が美しく、熟達した筆致によって壁面や天井を説話画や動植物文様によって華麗に飾っている。 またこの時代にヒンドゥー教の造形活動が始まり、次の中世前期における盛況を準備した。この黎明(れいめい)期の代表的な遺構は、ウダヤギリ石窟(5世紀初頭)とデーオーガルのビシュヌ寺院(6世紀前半)であり、マトゥラからも多くの優品が出土している。さらにムンバイ(ボンベイ)湾内のエレファンタ島の大規模な石窟と雄偉な彫刻群は、次代の南インドにおけるヒンドゥー教美術の先駆となった。 [肥塚 隆] 中世前期7世紀以降仏教はしだいに衰微し、13世紀までの中世前期はヒンドゥー教美術の全盛期である。仏教美術は、8~12世紀に東インドを支配したパーラ朝の庇護(ひご)を受けて、ナーランダー、ボードガヤー、ラトナギリなどで最後の華を咲かせた。彫刻は繊細精緻(せいち)となったものの、作風は形式化の傾向をたどった。また密教の隆盛に伴い、尊像の種類が増加し、像容が多様化した。仏教はイスラム教に圧迫されて12世紀の末ごろに衰退するが、パーラ様式の影響はネパール、チベット、東南アジアに及んだ。 仏教にかわって優勢となったヒンドゥー教は、まず南インドで6~8世紀に繁栄を競ったチャールキヤ、パッラバ、パーンディヤの3王朝のもとで、活発な造形活動を行った。チャールキヤ朝の彫刻は柔らかい肉づきでありながら充実した肢体の表現を特色とし、バーダーミ、アイホーレ、パッタダカルなどに石窟や石積寺院を残している。パッラバ朝の彫刻は、柔らかな肢体の動きある群像表現に優れ、カンチプラムやマハーバリプラムに代表的な遺構がある。757年チャールキヤ朝を倒して独立したラーシュトラクータ朝は、エローラに大規模なヒンドゥー教石窟を掘り、圧倒的な迫力をもつ男神、豊満艶麗(えんれい)な女神など多数の浮彫りを残している。 北インドでは諸王朝の分立が続き、チャンデーラ朝のカジュラーホ(9~13世紀)、オリッサ地方ではブバネシュワル(7~13世紀)、プリ(11~12世紀)、コナーラク(13世紀)などに、北インド独得の本殿が高くそびえる石積寺院が造営された。一方、南インドのヒンドゥー教寺院の本殿はピラミッド形で丈は高くなく、のちには楼門の高大さを競うようになる。イスラム教の影響が北インドに比べて弱かったこともあってその活動は長く続き、チョーラ朝(9~13世紀)、ホイサラ朝(12~14世紀)、ビジャヤナガル王国(14~16世紀)、ナーヤカ朝(17~18世紀)などによって、タンジャブール、チダムバラム、シュリーランガム、マドゥライその他の寺院が建立された。 [肥塚 隆] 中世後期インドにイスラム文化が影響を及ぼし始めるのは8世紀初頭であるが、イスラムの造形活動が本格化するのは12世紀末以降である。イスラム教は偶像を否定したので、イスラム美術は建築が主体であり、モスク(マスジッド)と墓廟(ぼびょう)が中心であった。当初は伝統的なインド建築の影響が強く、デリーのクトゥブ・ミナール(1200ごろ)が代表的遺構である。16世紀に成立したムガル帝国では、ペルシアの技術を取り入れ、大きなドームとアーチによる均斉ある統一を特徴とするインド・イスラム建築が完成した。デリーのフマーユーン廟(1565ごろ)、ファテプル・シークリーの宮殿(1569~1585)、アグラのタージ・マハル廟(1632~1643)などが著名である。16~19世紀には細密画が盛んに制作された。ムガル絵画とラージプート絵画の2派があり、前者はムガルの宮廷画院においてペルシア細密画を継承するとともにヨーロッパ絵画の技法も採用して発達し、主として歴史記録や人物および動植物を扱った風俗画が多い。後者は武人階級であるラージプート諸王国で盛んに描かれ、ヒンドゥー教神話を主題としながらも叙情的で庶民的性格が強い。 [肥塚 隆] 近現代18世紀後半にイギリスのインド支配が確立すると、インドの経済的風土は徹底的に破壊され、伝統文化は衰退した。詩聖ラビンドラナート・タゴールの従兄弟の息子であるアバニンドラナート・タゴールAbanindranath Tagore(1871―1951)は伝統文化への復帰を叫んで芸術運動をおこし、ベンガル派とよばれる一群の芸術家、すなわちジャミニ・ローイJamini Roy(1887―1972)やアムリター・シェールギルAmrita Shergil(1913―1941)などの画家、ラームキンカル・バイジュRamkinkar Baij(1906/1910―1980)などの彫刻家が活躍した。さらに1947年のインドとパキスタンの分離独立前後以降の著名な作家としては、インドでは画家のマクブール・フィダー・フセインMaqbool Fida Husain(1915―2011)、フランシス・ニュートン・スーザFrancis Newton Souza(1924―2002)、サイヤド・ハイダル・ラザーSayed Haidar Raza(1922―2016)、K・G・ラーマーヌジャンK. G. Ramanujam(1941―1973)、彫刻家のアニシュ・カプールAnishi Kapoor(1954― )、パキスタンでは画家のアブドゥル・ラハマーン・チヤグターイーAbdur Rehman Chughtai(1894/1897―1975)、サーディキーン・ナクビSadequain Naqvi(1930―1987)、アハマド・パルベーズAhmed Parvez(1926―1979)、彫刻家のシャーヒド・サジャードShahid Sajjad(1936―2014)、バングラデシュでは画家のザイヌル・アブディーンZainul Abedin(1914―1976)その他をあげることができる。 [肥塚 隆] 『高田修・上野照夫著『インド美術』(1965・日本経済新聞社)』▽『町田甲一編『東洋の美術Ⅱ』(1977・旺文社)』▽『佐和隆研編『インドの美術』(1978・美術出版社)』▽『肥塚隆編『朝日百科世界の美術83、84 インド美術Ⅰ、Ⅱ』(ともに1979・朝日新聞社)』▽『宮治昭著『仏教美術のイコノロジー――インドから日本まで』(1999・吉川弘文館)』▽『上野照夫著『インドの美術』(1985・中央公論美術出版)』▽『伊東照司著『インド仏教美術入門』(1986・雄山閣)』▽『山本智教著『インド美術史大観』全2冊(1990・毎日新聞社)』▽『岩波書店編・刊『仏教美術――印度彫刻』(1990)』▽『奈良康明・NHK取材班編『NHK大英博物館4 インド・仏教美術の開花』(1991・日本放送出版協会)』▽『ジョージ・ミッチェル著、神谷武夫訳『ヒンドゥ教の建築――ヒンドゥ寺院の意味と形態』(1993・鹿島出版会)』▽『グレンバラ・ジャパン編・刊『現代インド美術 グレンバラ美術館コレクション』(1993・星雲社)』▽『肥塚隆・宮治昭編『世界美術大全集 東洋編13、14 インド1、2』(1998、2000・小学館)』▽『福田和彦著『図説エロスの神々――インド・ネパールの太陽神殿とタントラ美術』(2000・河出書房新社)』▽『立川武蔵文・大村次郷写真『アジャンタとエローラ――インドデカン高原と石窟寺院と壁画』(2000・集英社)』▽『高田修・大村次郷著『アジャンタ壁画』(2000・NHK出版)』▽『ヴィディヤ・デヘージア著、宮治昭・平岡三保子訳『岩波世界の美術 インド美術』(2002・岩波書店)』▽『宮治昭著『インド美術史』(2009・吉川弘文館)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |第26窟(チャイティヤ窟)。馬蹄形の平面で、内部は広大で天井も高い。列柱も堂々とし、奥に説法印を結ぶ本尊を浮彫りしたストゥーパが安置される。世界文化遺産「アジャンタ石窟群」の一部(インド・1983年登録) インド アジャンタ©Shogakukan"> アジャンタの石窟寺院 一帯に残る総数100を超える石窟寺院のなかの代表的寺院。多くがグプタ朝期以後のものであるが、第3窟はそれよりも前のものである。インド ムンバイ近郊©Shogakukan"> カーンヘリー石窟第3窟 全石窟中で建築的にもっとも興味深い第16窟の「カイラーサナータ」。岩山から巨大な岩塊を切り離して彫刻的につくりだした単一石の建築。世界文化遺産「エローラ石窟群」(インド・1983年登録) インド オーランガーバード©Shogakukan"> エローラの石窟寺院 第1窟の奥まった南壁に彫られたシバ神の胸像。高さ5.5mで岩山のように堂々としている。世界文化遺産「エレファンタ石窟群」(インド・1987年登録) インド エレファンタ島©Shogakukan"> エレファンタの石窟寺院「三面のシバ神」 ムガル朝第5代シャー・ジャハーンが、若くして亡くなった愛妃ムムターズ・マハルのために建てた廟墓。22年の歳月をかけて1654年に完成。インド・イスラム建築の白眉で、「大理石の夢幻」といわれた。中央ドームの高さ58m。世界文化遺産「タージ・マハル」(インド・1983年登録) インド アグラ郊外©Shogakukan"> タージ・マハル 紀元前2000~前1750年ころ 青銅 高さ14cm パキスタン ハラッパーメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 2頭の牛に乗る女性の像 紀元前1000~前500年ころ テラコッタ 23.5cm パキスタン 北西辺境州メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 女性の土偶 クシャン朝(2世紀) 赤色砂岩 高さ85cm インド マトゥラシカゴ美術研究所所蔵"> ヤクシー像 3世紀 片岩 高さ92.7cm パキスタン(おそらくタフティ・バヒー)メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 仏陀像 5~6世紀 ストゥッコ(塑土) 高さ19.1cm アフガニスタン(おそらくハッダ)メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 仏陀の頭部像 パッラバ朝(6~7世紀) 青銅 高さ37.5cm インド アンドラ・プラデシュ州メトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 女神立像 叙事詩「ハムザナマ」より。1564~1569年ころ 布・紙・水彩・金 縦68.6×横54cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 『アサド・イブン・カリバの夜襲』 1750年ころ 紙・水彩 縦45.7×横32.1cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵"> 『クリシュナ最愛のラーダー』 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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