Japanese architecture

Japanese: 日本建築 - にほんけんちく

Japanese architecture has traditionally been a branch of Chinese architecture, and wooden architecture is the norm. As such, it is constructed using straight-line materials such as pillars and beams, but while most Chinese architecture paints the exposed wood, Japanese architecture generally leaves the wood unpainted, giving it characteristics that differ from China.

On the other hand, Western European and other foreign architecture is often made of brick or stone, and while these have a planar structure centered on walls, Japanese architecture has a linear structure. For example, in Japanese architecture, a horizontal member called a lintel is placed on top of an entrance or window, whereas in foreign architecture, a curved arch is usually used to raise it up. In other words, Japanese architecture is prefabricated, while Western architecture is built up. Japan has been blessed with timber for construction since ancient times, but there were no saws to cut large timber, and there were difficulties with tools for sawing, so the method of splitting the wood by driving a wedge into the grain was the main method used. For this reason, cypress, which splits smoothly and has a long service life, was widely used. In the mid-Muromachi period, large saws came into use, making it easier to saw various types of wood, but until then, cypress was the most widely used material. Pine has been widely used in various places since the Middle Ages, but cedar is soft and has not been used as the main material. It has only been used as a building material in the early modern period.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

The evolution of Japanese architecture

Prehistory

Japanese architecture also began with dwellings, and in the Pre-Pottery Period, rock shelters and caves were used for dwellings, and the first examples of dwellings partially constructed from wood can be found in the pit dwellings of the early Jomon period. These were built in various places, but were simple structures consisting of a hole dug in the ground and a roof placed on top.

The next type of architecture to pit dwellings are raised-floor storehouses, which appeared in the early Yayoi period. Unlike pit dwellings, raised-floor buildings are built high above the ground, so the interiors of the buildings are dry and they came to be built not only as storehouses but also as residences in the late Yayoi period, leading up to the Kofun period. The shape of the raised-floor storehouses of the Yayoi period is known from the seals on the ridge pillars of the Kesadasukimon Bronze Bell (National Treasure), which is said to have been excavated in Kagawa Prefecture, and from the inscriptions on earthenware excavated from the Karako site in Tawaramoto Town, Nara Prefecture.

Meanwhile, raised-floor architecture from the Kofun period is illustrated in a house pattern mirror excavated from the Takarazuka Tomb in Samida, Kawai Town, Nara Prefecture. This mirror dates to the second half of the 4th century, and one of the raised-floor buildings shows a storehouse with a gabled roof, while the other shows a dwelling with a hip-and-gable roof. In addition, a pit dwelling with a hip-and-gable roof and a dwelling on flat land are also depicted, the latter of which is probably a dwelling with pillars set into the ground.

In the Kofun period, the pommel of a ring-headed sword unearthed at the Todaijiyama Kofun Tumulus in Tenri, Nara Prefecture, represents a pit dwelling, and various building styles are known from house-shaped clay figurines. These can be broadly divided into dwellings and storehouses, but the more formal dwellings have katsuogi (wooden beams) on the ridge. There are also chigi that extend the gables to the top of the ridge, and chigi that cross the rafters at the ridge.

Reconstructed examples of pit dwellings can be found in various places, such as the Toro ruins in Shizuoka City, and their structure was based on the structure of tatara, a hut used in iron sand smelting in the Chugoku region, which is described in the Edo period metallurgical book Tetsuzan Hisho.

Structural components for raised-floor storehouses have been excavated from the Toro ruins and the Yamaki ruins in Izunokuni, Shizuoka Prefecture, and new examples have also been discovered at the Kodera ruins in Matsuyama, Ehime Prefecture, the Yuno ruins in Fukuoka City, and the Nouso ruins in Tsu, Mie Prefecture. The pillars of pit dwellings and raised-floor storehouses are dug into the ground, with the base of the pillar buried in the ground, and as the base is hardened with soil, even freestanding pillars can be fixed in place. In ancient Japanese architecture, pit-dwelling pillars were the norm, and roofs were simple structures made of grass. The Kojiki records that Emperor Yuryaku discovered that the house of Oagatanushi in Shiki had a katsuogi (dried oak) on the ridge of its roof, and, angrily, ordered it to be burned down because it resembled the imperial palace. Eight house-shaped haniwa figures were excavated from Chausuyama Kofun in Isesaki City, Gunma Prefecture, and include the main house with a gabled roof decorated with katsuogi, two gabled annexes and one shed, three gabled elevated storehouses, and one hipped-roof storehouse. The houses with katsuogi were truly palaces, and it is interesting to note that these haniwa figures give us an idea of the structure of the homes of the powerful families of the time who were buried in keyhole-shaped tumuli.

Japanese shrine architecture is thought to have inherited these traditions. Ancient people sought places where gods would descend in unique topographical features, revering these places as the abode of the gods and worshiping hereditary treasures as the spiritual substitutes of their ancestral gods, and the storehouses in which these were stored were transformed into temples. For this reason, they were built in the form of raised floors and gabled roofs, with katsuogi trees decorated on the ridges in imitation of palaces. It is said that the word gosha is a corruption of miarika, the word miya is miya, and the word hokora is a corruption of hokura. Seen in this way, shrines, the abodes of the gods, can be said to be a combination of miya and hokura.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Asuka and Nara periods

After the introduction of Buddhism in the mid-6th century, construction of Asukadera Temple began in 592 (5th year of Emperor Sushun's reign) as a full-scale temple building. Temple builders came from Baekje to Japan for this construction, and they used a construction method that was completely different from the traditional post-hole buildings, where a platform was built, foundation stones were placed, and pillars were erected on top of the foundation stones. Complex braiding was placed on top of the pillars to support girders, and the roof was covered with tiles. In addition, a tower that soared high into the sky was built. This was a huge technological advancement compared to the simple, linear architecture of the past, and the people of Asuka must have been amazed at the splendor of Buddhist architecture when they saw the emergence of this unimaginable building. The Asukadera temple tower marked the beginning of authentic Japanese Buddhist architecture, and continental architectural styles were added to the traditional Japanese architectural style. Although the exterior appearance of Asukadera Temple is unclear today, it is believed to have been the precursor to the existing Western Precinct of Horyuji Temple.

The architecture of the Western Precinct of Horyuji Temple is characterized by its bulging pillars commonly called tokuri pillars, cloud brackets, corner brackets that protrude in only one direction, single eaves, and balustrades with split brackets in the shape of a human character, all of which are completely different from later styles. This is interpreted as a mixture of various ancient Chinese architectural styles, such as those from the Wei-Jin and Northern and Southern Dynasties, which were introduced to Japan during the Asuka period, and which were then mixed and transferred to the Korean peninsula. The new style here refers to the structural advances made by the Asuka style, which began with the construction of Asukadera Temple, as it developed technically from the end of the 6th century to the 7th century, when round rafters were replaced by square rafters, and when corner fan rafters were replaced by finger rafters. At this time, the architectural style of the Sui and Tang dynasties on the continent, which was different from the Asuka style, had already been introduced to Japan, but as Horyuji Temple is a temple associated with Prince Shotoku, it is thought that it basically followed the older Asuka style.

The new continental Sui and Tang architectural style is thought to have been introduced around the time of the construction of Kawaradera Temple. Kawaradera Temple was built as an official large temple by Emperor Tenchi (reigned 661-671), who actively adopted Chinese culture. At the same time, the reconstruction of the damaged Kudara Temple was also taking place, creating the foundation for the introduction of new styles. As both temples no longer exist, many things are unknown, but the architecture of the time can be inferred from the surviving East Pagoda of Yakushiji Temple (730). Yakushiji Temple was originally built in Fujiwara-kyo, and when the capital was moved to Heijo-kyo in 710 (Wado 3), it was moved to the new capital along with other large temples, and at that time the temple buildings of the old Fujiwara-kyo were reproduced exactly.

In the 8th century, the capital moved from Fujiwara-kyo to Heijo-kyo, and construction of palaces and temples flourished. Government organizations such as the Ministry of Palace Construction and the Office of Temple Construction were established, and construction work developed. Palace architecture prior to the Fujiwara Palace was built using the traditional post-hole construction method, but at Fujiwara Palace, the gates that defined the palace and one section of the Chodoin, the center of national government, were built on foundation stones and with tiled roofs, adopting continental architectural styles. Continental architectural styles, which were introduced along with Buddhist architecture, were also applied to palace architecture, but with so many buildings within the palace as at Heijo Palace, it was impossible to build them all on foundation stones, so the Dairi, the residence of the emperor, respected tradition and was built with post-hole construction, and most of the government office buildings also followed the traditional post-hole construction method. Even in temples, the core of the complex was built on foundation stones, but the annexes were built with post-holes, so to speak, monumental buildings built on foundation stones and with tiled roofs.

During the Nara period, new architectural styles were also introduced. For example, in the case of the Kondo (main hall) of Toshodaiji Temple, a relic from the height of the Nara period, the second bracket of the bracket that supports the eaves is connected horizontally, and the small ceiling and supports are attached to the eaves using horizontal connecting members (shirinketa), showing a style that is clearly different from previous architecture. As mentioned above, temple construction during the Nara period was carried out by government organizations, and this new architectural style became more unified. The Shoku Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan Continued) records that the monk Doji, who was involved in the construction of Daian-ji Temple, was skilled in architecture, and it is believed that Doji acquired architectural techniques during his training in China. It is believed that the unified architectural style from the Nara period was brought by these monks who went to China, and that it was spread to various places through the construction of provincial temples.

Meanwhile, during the Nara period, the trend towards Japanese architecture was being promoted. That is, Buddhist architecture was originally built on stone foundations, had tiled roofs, and had dirt floors, but buildings with wooden floors, such as the Hokke-do Hall of Todai-ji Temple, began to appear, and many Buddhist temples had roofs made of shingles or cypress bark. It seems that Buddhist temples built in mountainous areas in particular were often Japanese-style. There were also buildings with an eclectic composition of Japanese and continental styles, such as the Toin Garan of Horyu-ji Temple, where the central hall, the Yumedono Hall, and the Denpo-do Hall, which corresponds to the lecture hall, were built on stone foundations and tiled, while the other corridors and Shichijo-ya buildings were built with pit pillars and cypress bark roofs.

Buddhist ceremonies also followed those introduced from the continent, but eventually came to adopt Japanese etiquette, and wooden flooring was required in the worship space. Originally, Buddhist halls were only for Buddha, and were treated like large altars in which to worship the Buddha, but prayer halls for worshiping the Buddha came to be added to the halls, and the eaves in front of the hall came to be used as the prayer hall, or a separate prayer hall was built in front, so the halls came to take the form of a double hall. In this way, the Nara period was also a time when Buddhist halls adapted to the Japanese climate began to be built.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Heian Period

In 794 (Enryaku 13), the capital was moved to Heian-kyo, but the great temples of Heijo-kyo remained in Nara, and only two temples, To-ji and Sai-ji, were established in the new capital. The construction of these two temples followed the previous style, but when Saicho and Kukai, who had traveled to China and studied Esoteric Buddhism, founded the new Tendai and Shingon sects, architecture based on Esoteric Buddhism began to be built. Until then, pagodas had been built with nine, seven, five, or three stories, but the Tahoto pagoda was built under the influence of Esoteric Buddhism.

Meanwhile, the Jogyo-do Hall of Enryaku-ji Temple was also constructed in this period, but this building is a square five-bay hall in the Hogyo-zukuri style with a wish-granting jewel on the top of the roof, which, like the Tahoto pagoda, only appeared in the Heian period. A building from the Nara period in which the front eaves were used as a prayer hall is the Kondo Hall of Toshodai-ji Temple, but in the Heian period, a grand eaves was added in front of the front eaves and used as a prayer hall, as in the Kondo Hall and Jikido Hall of Toji Temple, which increased the depth of the Buddhist hall by one ken from four to five ken. The frequent use of grand eaves can also be said to be a characteristic of Heian architecture.

Along with these changes in the plan, changes also occurred in the structure. In China, the Nanzenji Great Hall, built in 782 (Kenchu 3), attempted to use a single piece of wood for its components by exposing the hijiki shape on a through hijiki, while in Japan, the Daigoji Five-Story Pagoda, completed in 952 (Tenryaku 6), began to use a single piece of wood by partially creating a tongue and groove hijiki under a round beam. This trend subsequently intensified, and among the surviving examples, the Ichijoji Three-Story Pagoda in Hyogo Prefecture, built in 1171 (Joan 1), shows the use of a single piece of wood for its components, similar to the Nanzenji Great Hall. On the other hand, in a climate with a lot of rainfall and high humidity like Japan, measures against rain had to be considered in order to preserve the building. First, in terms of drainage, the slope of the roof was made steeper. In ancient architecture, for example, the main building had visible attic rafters, like the Shin-Yakushiji Main Hall, or had a ceiling, like the Toshodaiji Kondo, but the eaves generally did not have a ceiling, and instead had the attic rafters exposed, a so-called decorative attic ceiling. Therefore, to increase the slope of the roof, a roof was placed on top of the roof. This type of roof is called a no-yane, and the roof of the Great Lecture Hall of Horyuji Temple (rebuilt in 990) is known to be an early example of this type.

When no-roofs were made possible, the slope of the eaves roof no longer had any effect on the flow of rain, so it became possible to make the slope gentler, and it was thought that the side pillars could be made taller. This was advantageous in terms of lighting, and had the effect of brightening the interior of the building. Also, by utilizing the space between the no-roof and the no-roof, Japanese oak beams were inserted to support the eaves, and the presence of Japanese oak beams allowed the eaves to extend deeper. Both the steeper roof slope and the deeper eaves were extremely effective in keeping out rain, and in buildings with flooring, they also allowed ventilation under the floor, which had a positive effect on the preservation of the building.

This also changed the exterior appearance of the building. The roof became higher, as did the side pillars, making the building taller overall. Buildings with floors have a veranda around the perimeter, which has the effect of tightening the base of the building, just like the base of a building with an earthen floor. Also, while bases had previously been raised to protect the building from moisture on the ground, it became easier to allow air to circulate underneath, and so high bases were no longer necessary. From the Nara period to the Heian period, Buddhist halls began to change into more Japanese-style buildings suited to the local climate.

On the other hand, in the Heian period, official exchanges with the continent ceased after the abolition of the missions to Tang China in 894 (Kanpei 6), and it can be said that architectural styles that had been in place since the Nara period developed into Japanese styles. In the aforementioned Ichijoji Three-Storied Pagoda, where structural components are made from a single piece of wood, the side panels of the Mitemaki-Kumimono, which had previously been assembled in two tiers like the Five-Storied Pagoda of Daigoji Temple, have been reinforced by inserting a through-joint beam in the upper tier, and the Kentozuka, which had been placed in the nakazonae (intermediate brackets) between the panels, have been removed and replaced with honkaerumata (intermediate brackets) for design considerations. The use of honkaerumata in the intermediate brackets began in the Heian period, and this can also be considered a new development. In this way, the architectural styles that were introduced from Tang China during the Nara period and developed into Japanese styles throughout the Heian period are called Japanese architectural styles.

The Amida Hall, which originated from the Tahoto Pagoda and the Jodo Hall, is one of the distinctive buildings of the Heian period, but at the same time, Buddhist halls with worship spaces that made use of eaves and grand eaves developed into deeper main hall-style buildings that comprised an inner sanctuary and outer sanctuary. An example of this is the main hall of Taimadera Temple, which still exists today and has a ridgepole inscription from 1161. This hall was built earlier, in the early Heian period, as a Buddhist hall with a grand eaves prayer hall, but when the worship space was improved, it was converted into a main hall that comprises an inner sanctuary and outer sanctuary, and it appears as if the inner sanctuary and outer sanctuary were lined up side by side with the eaves of the twin halls omitted. The rafters of the main roof are constructed with large beams across the ridge of the twin halls, and it is a further development of the noya roof. The main hall of Kongobuji Temple in Mount Koya, built in 1150 (Kyuan 6), is composed of an inner sanctuary, a middle sanctuary, and an outer sanctuary, with a prayer hall lined up in front of the Buddhist hall, but old drawings show that the middle sanctuary was created by adding a large beam connecting the side pillars of the Buddhist hall to the pillars of the prayer hall. This shows that the method of eliminating pillars by bridging large beams in a continuous manner had already been attempted before the Middle Ages.

Other buildings from the Heian period include houses built in the shinden-zukuri style, although they no longer exist. Excavations of the land in Heijo-kyo have revealed that commoners' houses in the Nara period were built with pit-pillared pillars, and pit-pillared buildings were also the norm for residential palaces. In addition, the Denpo-do Hall of the Eastern Temple of Horyu-ji Temple, which is thought to be the only remaining high-class aristocratic house from the Nara period, may have originally been built with pit-pillared pillars, although it has now been remodeled to look like a Buddhist temple and is built on foundation stones. Investigations conducted during dismantling and repair have revealed that it may have originally been built with pit-pillared pillars. Furthermore, excavations of other housing ruins show that houses from the Nara period were generally built independently on the land. In contrast, shinden-zukuri houses were connected to each other by corridors. This is thought to have been a simplification of the original palace layout of the Imperial Palace, and the basic structure was a shinden (main hall) in the center, with opposing buildings symmetrically placed on either side. In reality, however, one of the pair was often built on a smaller scale as a counter part, or one was omitted, destroying the symmetry. The form of early shinden-zukuri aristocratic residences is unclear, but most are known about 12th century shinden-zukuri residences, as they are depicted realistically in picture scrolls. It is believed that further simplifications of the shinden-zukuri style of high-ranking aristocrats spread to the residences of lower-ranking aristocrats, Buddhist families, and samurai. In addition to the doors used in Buddhist halls, these residences made extensive use of shutters and sliding doors, and it is known that a wide variety of fittings were used.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Kamakura period

The Middle Ages in Japanese architecture began with the reconstruction of Todaiji Temple and Kofukuji Temple in Nanto, which had been burned down in 1180 (Jisho 4) during the Genpei War. At that time, new Chinese architectural styles such as Daibutsu-yo and Zen-yo were introduced, and Japanese architecture developed significantly. Daibutsu-yo was a style that Shunjobo Chogen, who worked hard to restore Todaiji Temple in Kamakura, interpreted Song Dynasty architectural styles in his own way. In order to quickly restore Todaiji Temple, he standardized the materials so that mass production was possible, and each pillar was connected with a crossbeam to increase the strength of the building. In addition, instead of a simple roof, a steeply sloping roof was used, with a single eaves and fan rafters at the corners of the eaves. This style was partially incorporated into the Japanese style, and became widespread as Shin-Wa-yo, mainly in the Nara region.

As Zen Buddhism was then spread, architectural styles imported directly from the Song Dynasty were brought to Japan. This style introduced completely new structural principles, such as making the brackets smaller than the axis and arranging them on the base of the pillars, and the tail rafters assembled in the brackets support the main building as corbels on the inside. It also created new innovations, such as connecting beams connecting the entrance pillars and the side pillars at different heights to form shrimp-shaped beams. This was Zenshu-yo, and eventually the strengths of the Daibutsu-yo and Zenshu-yo were applied to the Japanese style, and the Sekushu-yo, a blend of these two styles, was established. In Sekushu-yo, the engineers who built the structure and design independently decided which parts were Japanese and which parts were Zen, so Japanese architecture, which had once been structured in a unified Japanese style, became pluralistic, and each building had its own unique character. Furthermore, because the Shogunate's administration was stable during the Kamakura period, there was frequent exchange of engineers in conjunction with the construction of the great temples of Kyoto, Kamakura, and the Five Mountains, and architectural techniques began to spread steadily throughout the country. Distinctive and famous buildings were built in various places outside the Kinki region as well, such as the main hall of Ban'onji Temple in Tochigi Prefecture, the main hall of Daizenji Temple in Yamanashi Prefecture, the main hall of Myozu-ji Temple in Fukui Prefecture, the main hall of Choho-ji Temple in Wakayama Prefecture, the main hall of Myoo-in Temple in Hiroshima Prefecture, the main hall of Motoyama-ji Temple in Kagawa Prefecture, and the main hall of Taisan-ji Temple in Ehime Prefecture.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Muromachi and Momoyama periods

In the Muromachi period, the Sechu-style, which had developed in the Kamakura period, became mainstream, and Zen architecture became more diverse, with buildings based primarily on the Zen style. However, the Daibutsu-style was absorbed into the Shin-Wa-style and was used in the Sechu-style, and like the pure Wa-style, it no longer survived as a Daibutsu-style.

The late Muromachi period was known as the Age of Warring States. As centralized power collapsed and feudal lords began to control their territories in various regions, national exchanges among engineers became closed off, and local characteristics began to appear in buildings. In particular, in Izumi (Osaka Prefecture) and Kii (Wakayama Prefecture), buildings that emphasized decorativeness and featured carvings and coloring in the details appeared, and the origins of the magnificent architecture of the following Momoyama period spread in a narrow area as a local color. Meanwhile, castle architecture developed from the end of the Muromachi period as a custom in the Age of Warring States, and multiple watchtowers were built, leading to the development of castle towers. Castles were military buildings primarily for defense, but on the other hand, magnificent buildings were built to demonstrate the authority of feudal lords, and in particular Azuchi Castle, built by Oda Nobunaga on the south shore of Lake Biwa, was a pioneer of magnificent castle towers.

Although the construction of castles did not directly require temple and shrine architects, their skills were needed when the scale of the castles became grand. Furthermore, the residences within the castles, which served as places for interviewing vassals and entertaining envoys, were elaborately designed with elegant interiors and decorated with transoms and gold leaf paintings, so that in addition to architectural engineers, painters and sculptors also participated, and architecture came to be valued as a product of a comprehensive art. The main rooms of the residences were equipped with alcoves, shelves, shoin (traditional Japanese study), and chodai-gamae (traditional Japanese study stand), establishing the style as shoin-zukuri. Jurakudai, built by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1587 (Tensho 15), was the epitome of shoin-zukuri architecture, with gates decorated with carvings and brilliant colors. Famous examples of architectural beauty from this period include the main hall of Tsukubusuma Shrine on Chikubu Island in Shiga Prefecture, said to be the remains of Toyotomi Hideyoshi's mausoleum, Toyokuni Shrine, and the Karamon Gate of Hogon-ji Temple. As mentioned earlier, precursors to this style of architecture can also be seen in the shrine architecture of Izumi and Kii, which blossomed as Momoyama architecture during this period. Representative examples include the main hall and worship hall of Kitano Tenmangu Shrine in Kyoto, completed in 1607 (Keicho 12), and the main hall and worship hall of Osaki Hachimangu Shrine in Miyagi Prefecture. The latter was completed by the main hall of Zuiganji Temple in Miyagi prefecture, which was then completed by Nakamura Yoshitsugu of Yamashiro (Kyoto prefecture), who was the master carpenter of Osaki Hachimangu Shrine. There was an exchange of engineers and materials, with materials being transported from Kumano in Kii, and a structure of equal quality was built in the Tohoku region.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Edo period

Even in the Edo period, splendor was highly valued in architecture. The main hall of Toshogu Shrine on Mount Kuno in Shizuoka Prefecture, built in 1617 (Genwa 3), used carved round sculptures for its brackets, and the Ankokuden Hall (burned down in World War II), built around the same time to house a statue of Tokugawa Ieyasu at Zojoji Temple in Edo, had animal heads carved into the ends of its rafters; these were the first examples of carving into structural materials. As the number of carved components increased, it was natural that the Zen style, with its many variations such as curved rafters and kobushibana (fist noses), was favored, and an eclectic style that was neither Japanese nor Zen became mainstream. On the other hand, pure Zen style was also adopted in the construction of Zen temples such as Daitokuji, Nanzenji, and Myoshinji in Kyoto, and saw a different development in the early modern period. However, even in Zen temples, the sub-temples built around the main temple complex use the hojo as the main hall, and are built in a residential style primarily based on Japanese design.

Shoin-zukuri, which developed in the early modern period, was highly decorative and luxurious on one side, but in the Edo period, shoin-zukuri, which emphasized delicacy, appeared. Influenced by the sukiya style of architecture that originated with teahouses, it used menkawa pillars and the walls were painted with Juraku or sabi-kabe. In these rooms, fine and rare woods were highly valued for the floors, shelves, and shoin. The shoin buildings of Katsura Imperial Villa, which began construction around 1615 (during the Genna era), and the Manshuin shoin and Nishi Honganji Kuro shoin, both built in 1656-1657 (2nd and 3rd years of the Meireki era), are good examples of sukiya-style shoin.

In the early modern period, with the introduction of the Obaku sect, Obaku-style architecture was constructed again. In Nagasaki, the temple buildings of Sōfuku-ji Temple were constructed in the Obaku style from 1644 (Shohō 1). This temple, along with Kōfuku-ji Temple and Fukusai-ji Temple, also in Nagasaki, were established as temples for the Fuzhou people living in Nagasaki, and as neither temple's original architecture remains, the buildings of Sōfuku-ji Temple are noteworthy as they preserve vestiges of early Chinese architecture from the late Ming and Qing dynasties. In 1662 (Kanbun 2), Manpuku-ji Temple in Kyoto was constructed, and the Obaku style spread throughout the country as the Obaku sect spread, and fine examples from this period remain in rural areas, such as the main hall of Hōrin-ji Temple in Shizuoka Prefecture.

Throughout the Edo period, shrines and temples were the mainstream of eclectic architecture, and detailed decorations developed. In particular, carvings became popular and the walls became more or less popular, and the beauty of the sculptures became more acclaimed to increase the value of the architecture than the architecture itself. Architectures decorated with sculptures, lacquer and colours were popular in the Kanto region, such as the Toshogu Shrine in Nikko and the Daiyuin Mausoleum, and relatively few in Kansai. In addition, in the Kanto region, the Kangiin Seitendo, Saitama Prefecture, Myogi Shrine in Gunma Prefecture, and Shakado, a three-story pagoda of Shinshoji Temple in Chiba Prefecture, and the shrines of Sengen Shrine in Shizuoka are known for those from the late Edo period.

After signing the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the United States and four other countries in 1858 (Ansei 5), reservations were established at the opening of the port, and Western-style houses began to be built. The former Glover and the former Orto residences in Nagasaki remained as being built before the Meiji period. The residences on the settlement were built by Japanese carpenters under the guidance of foreigners, and were completely new types of Japanese architecture. Until then, cities were mainly castle towns, and samurai houses and merchants were divided into them. The samurai houses were simplified by the construction of Shoin, and many merchants were made of lacquer (collaring) (making houses), and in particular, there were earthen buildings made of fire-resistant properties. Meanwhile, in rural areas, farmers had the characteristics of their respective regions, conveying extremely conservative planes and structures. Therefore, at the time, there were already a wide variety of architectures.

In the Meiji period, Japanese people began to create simulated Western-style architecture, and the existing ones were famous for the Kaichi School in Nagano Prefecture, which was built in 1876 (Meiji 9). At the time, public architecture was created in accordance with Western-style architecture, but the windows were framed in arches, and wooden frames were shaped like cornerstones, and plastered in the cornerstone style to realistically process them. Until the Meiji period, people actually studied architecture overseas and returned to Japan, traditional carpenters built Western-style architecture by imitating them. When they looked at the Tsukiji Hotel Hall in 1868 (Keio 4) and the National Daiichi Bank in 1872, Nishikie clearly showed the simulated Western-style architecture of the time.

[Kudou Yoshiaki]

Modern and contemporary Japanese architecture

Western Architectural Transplantation Era

In the face of the overwhelmingly superior culture of the West, Meiji leaders were keenly aware of the need to quickly intake of industrial technology and military equipment. For them, Westernization and modernization were synonymous, and the so-called employing foreign engineers and architects were the ones who first responded to the new architectural challenges that corresponded to modern society after the Meiji Restoration. These early Meiji architecture was generally called eclecticism in the 19th century, and modern European architecture began when they rejected this ancient style, but in Japan, eclecticism became the parent of modernization. This was the pioneering Western-style architecture, with various industries, steelworks, shipyards, spinning plants and other facilities opened by the late Edo period and the Nagasaki Steel Works (1861) and Oura Cathedral (1865) being examples. The Meiji Restoration government took over the facilities of various domains, and also hired many foreign engineers because it needed to establish new industrial equipment, assisting them by Hayashi Tadadashi (1835-1893), Tachikawa Tomokata (1825-1894), Asakura Seiichi (1840-1903). In 1873 (Meiji 6), British Daiel and others came to Japan as teachers in engineering dormitories, and full-scale engineering education began.

Early works left behind by these foreign engineers include the British Wartorus's Izumibu Constellation (1843-1887) Yujukan, where Giovanni Vincenzo Cappelletti (1843-1887), but the British condors that most influenced Japan were the Rokumeikan (1883), Hisaya Iwasaki (1896, still alive), and Mitsui Club (1913).

Meanwhile, private masters, craftsmen, and lower-level engineers in government agencies still applied traditional Japanese shed structures, and created so-called Western-style (open-air style) architecture, such as colonial style, with domestic and international designs. This spread throughout the country as an elementary school and town hall building when it was distributed in 1872. Nakagomi School (Saku City), Mutsusawa School (Kofu City), Kaichi School (Matsumoto City), and Seiseikan Hospital (Yamagata City), etc. still exist, but this style has remained hidden from the 1880s onwards.

The Department of Building Studies at the Institute of Technology was established in 1879, and full-scale Japanese architects such as Tatsuno Kingo, Katayama Tokuma, Sone Tatsuzou, Satate Shichijiro (1856-1922), who were educated in the condor, Tsumaki Yorinaka, who was educated in the United States during the same time, and Yamaguchi Hanroku, who studied in France, began to work in the 1880s. Tatsuno's Bank of Japan Main Office (1896), Tsumaki Yokohama Publishing Bank (1904), and Katayama's neo-Baroku Akasaka Imperial Palace (1906), were monumental architectures that represent the Meiji era.

[Omi Sakae September 19, 2018]

Descending skin from following Europe and the US

The Nobi earthquake in 1891 caused great damage to brick buildings, and taught the dangers of introducing foreign buildings as they were. Learned from this lesson and the San Francisco earthquake in 1906 (Meiji 39), reinforced concrete and steel frame construction with earthquake-resistant fire-resistant structures were actively adopted, mainly Sano Toshiki. The application of iron materials, symbolizing the new era, was one of the first attempts to be made in the fields of railway bridges and shipbuilding, but a precedent for use in buildings was the Shueisha Factory (1894), a pipe structure designed by shipbuilder Wakayama Genkichi (1856-1899). Office buildings include the Ginza Kurosawa Building (1910, designed by Kurosawa Sadajiro (1875-1953)), the Mitsui & Co. Yokohama Branch (1911, designed by Endo Oto (1865-1943)), and the Sano Maruzen Bookstore (1909), which was a mixed structure of steel frames and bricks, became the founder of the curtain walls.

The construction of the House of Representatives (Imperial Parliament Building) was an important issue for the Meiji government, but in 1910 the building preparation committee was held, and at the debate, the next generation of architects proposed to establish a national style. The results of the discussion were barren, but these discussions were held, and by publicly recruiting design proposals, it shows that the era of imitation and mastery has ended and the next era of new leap forward has entered.

[Omi Sakae September 19, 2018]

Separatists and Japan's CIAM

In the 1910s, the activities of Art Nouveau and Zetzesy overseas began to be conveyed with a fresh voice. In 1920 (Taisho 9), six students, including Ishimoto Kikuji (1894-1963), Horiguchi Susumu, Takizawa Mayumi (1896-1983), Yada Shigeru (1896-1958), Yamada Mamoru and Morita Keiichi (1895-1983), formed the Separatist Architecture Association, criticizing the stylistic style of architectural production at the time with their fierce declarations and advocated for their creation. Two years later, the Separatists began to launch practical activities, with Yamada designing the Tokyo Central Telegraph Bureau, Ishimoto designing the Tokyo Asahi Shimbun, and Horiguchi designing the Taisho Expo venue. The separatists, which were the trend of expressionism in Europe at the time, gained many sympathy among the younger generations, and the separatists, and similar groups were born. The main focus of these activities was exhibitions and lectures, but in addition to the large buildings that architects have worked on up until now, it is noteworthy that they also looked at ordinary people's housing, combining rationalistic methods with class consciousness. Around 1930 (Showa 5), issues such as the human dynamics of the architectural plane, such as the flow of flow, as well as issues such as human body, furniture dimensions, standards, and housing mass pros have begun to be addressed.

The International Architecture Association was formed in July 1927, with Kyoto architects in mind. The association aimed at functionalism and advocated that "the foundations are based on authentic locality" in line with its platform, and although its uniqueness and achievements were expected, the reality was not beyond the CIAM (International Conference on Modern Architecture), which pursued functionality and rationality.

European CIAMs have expressed an attitude of viewing architecture internationally as a social issue rather than individual architecture, and at their second meeting, "minimum living housing" was chosen as the theme. Maekawa Kunio, a student under Le Corbusier, and Yamada Mamoru from Japan, participated in this event, and Japanese architects finally appeared on the international stage, which was the catalyst for the introduction of international styles to Japan in earnest.

Apart from this avant-garde philosophy, private commercial architecture such as banks and companies spread throughout Japan, experiencing a variety of styles, including classicism and neo-baroque.

[Omi Sakae September 19, 2018]

The trend of nationalism

The conflict between Japanese and Western blending and modernization was an inevitable issue. As nationalism began to emerge, a trend in the architecture world that pandered to the rationalist architecture, typical of Yoshida Tetsuro's Tokyo Central Post Office (1931), was born in the architecture world, such as the Tokyo Imperial Museum (1937, designed by Watanabe Hitoshi) and the Kudan Military Hall (1934, designed by Kawamoto Ryoichi). B. Taut visited Japan during this period of nationalism, and by praised Ise Shrine and Katsura Imperial Palace, he played a role in promoting a return to traditional Japanese beauty.

As Japan's modern architecture was about to expand, the wartime system prevented its normal development with the exception of Sakakura Junzo's Japanese Pavilion, which was exhibited at the Paris Expo in 1937. The proposition of architects was to improve housing and urban planning in agricultural and fishing villages, but this was not realized during the war, and rather became the source of post-war architectural activities. Japan's modern architecture movement ended with the tragic ending in the war damage of World War II, with the loss of nearly 20% of the buildings before the war.

[Omi Sakae]

present day

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

In response to this diverse overseas modeling activity, Tange showed dynamic sculptural expressions of hanging roofs in the Tokyo indoor gymnasium, an Olympic facility in 1964. This attracted international attention as a symbolic Japanese work that achieved high economic growth. In this way, in the 1960s, the works of Tange Kenzo, Tsuboi Yoshikatsu, Maekawa Kunio, and Yokoyama Fumaku who pursued the possibilities of modern technology were attracting attention, while Murano Togo and Shirai Iichi managed to sublimate their own eclectic decorative properties while maintaining a certain distance from the trends in modernism, and produced fresh, talked-about works one after another, such as Murano, Nippon Life Building (1964) and Shirai, Shinwa Bank Head Office (1968).

Japan's high economic growth in the 1970s became the center of attention from around the world, and instead of catching up to Europe and the US, they had to explore new prospects themselves, without textbooks from developed countries, despite the poor living environment that contrasts with the world's leading industrial productivity. Eventually, they entered the Osaka World Expo in 1970, which was advocating "progress and harmony," but already post-industrialization progressed on a global scale, and overcoming alienation and recognition of leisure began to attract attention, and it was no longer possible to make industrialization itself the ideal of modeling as it had been in the past.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

The diversification and confusion of architectural design from the mid-1970s still do not reveal any solid prospects. In the 1960s, Tange's genealogy was universal, and Murano's genealogy was considered unique, but after the Osaka Expo, it turned around, and reflection began to be required on the idea of a high economic growth style, centered on industrial production. Isozaki eventually published the Tsukuba Center Building as a postmodern masterpiece. This became a hot topic as an extremely unique expression, culminated in the Renaissance, through mannerisms and quoting, typing, and inversion of modern architecture.

Some of the works that adorn the early 1980s include the Shintakanawa Prince Hotel (Murano), which can be considered anti-modernist, and the Akasaka Prince Hotel (Tange), a late modernist style. In addition, another trend in modern Japanese architecture is the development of a series of works, such as the National Noh Theater of Oe Hiroshi, where modern architecture and traditions are mixed together. Furthermore, Kurokawa Kisho's activities both inside and outside the country were also attracting attention.

[Omi Sakae]

"Modern Architecture in Japan" (1981, Institute for Environmental Culture)" ▽ "Collection of Modern Architecture History of Modern Architecture" (1976, Shokokusha)" ▽ "Inagaki Eizo, "Modern Architecture: The Process of Establishment" (1979, Kashima Publishing Association)" ▽ "Ota Hirotaro, Fukuyama Toshio, et al., "New Architecture of Architecture 4 I, History of Architecture in Japan" (1968, Shokokusha)" ▽ "Study of Japanese Architecture History" (1980, Sogeisha)" ▽ "Ota Hirotaro, Ota Hirotaro, "Collection of Architecture History of Japanese Architecture 1" (1983, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "National Treasure Dictionary 5 Buildings" (1985, Kodansha)" ▽

Three steps: Yakushiji East Tower and Toshodaiji Kindo Hall
©Shogakukan ">

Three steps: Yakushiji East Tower and Toshodaiji Kindo Hall

Cross-section of Shin-Yakushiji Main Hall, Horyuji Dai Auditorium, and Tomaji Main Hall
©Shogakukan ">

Shin Yakushiji Temple Main Hall, Horyuji Temple Dai Auditorium, Tomaji Temple Main Hall...

Ichijoji Temple Three-Story Pagoda Group
©Shogakukan ">

Ichijoji Temple Three-Story Pagoda Group

Names of the parts of the five-story pagoda (Daigoji Temple)
©Shogakukan ">

Names of the parts of the five-story pagoda (Daigoji Temple)

Shinden-zukuri (plan of restored Higashisanjo Palace)
©Shogakukan ">

Shinden-zukuri (plan of restored Higashisanjo Palace)

Myo-in
Five-story pagoda and main hall (both national treasures). Fukuyama City, Hiroshima Prefecture © Hiroshima Prefecture ">

Myo-in

Tokuosuma Shrine
Main shrine (national treasure). Nagahama City, Shiga Prefecture © Nagahama Tourism Association ">

Tokuosuma Shrine

Hogenji Temple Tangmon
Karamon (national treasure) and Kannondo (national designated important cultural property) that follows behind it. Takeijima, Nagahama City, Shiga Prefecture © Nagahama Tourism Association ">

Hogenji Temple Tangmon

Osaki Hachiman Shrine
Hall of worship (national treasure). Aoba-ku, Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture © Miyagi Prefecture Tourism Division ">

Osaki Hachiman Shrine

Zuiganji Temple
The main hall (center of photo) and the main entrance (left). National Treasure Matsushima-cho, Miyagi-gun, Miyagi Prefecture © Zuiganji Temple

Zuiganji Temple

Kunoyama Toshogu Shrine Main Hall
The main hall is completely lacquered and is decorated with finely colored details such as carvings. The copper tile roof is made of Irimoya-ya, with three sashes and three beams. It is connected to the worship hall by a stone room (facial room), one of the characteristics of the Gongen construction (left photo). National Treasure Shizuoka City, Shizuoka Prefecture © Shizuoka Prefecture Tourism Association ">

Kunoyama Toshogu Shrine Main Hall

Sofukuji Temple (Nagasaki City)
The main hall is the Daiyuhoden (national treasure). Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture © Nagasaki Tourism Federation

Sofukuji Temple (Nagasaki City)

Former Glover Residence (Glover Residence)
Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Part of the World Cultural Heritage "Meiji Japan's Industrial Revolution Heritage: Iron and Steel, Shipbuilding, Coal Industry" (registered in 2015) Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture © Nagasaki Prefecture Tourism Federation, General Incorporated Association ">

Former Glover Residence (Glover Residence)

Former Kaichi School Building
This old elementary school building was completed in 1876 (Meiji 9). It is a two-story wooden building modeled after Kaisei School in Tokyo (the predecessor to the University of Tokyo), with an octagonal tower rising in the center. It is one of the most representative examples of Western-style school architecture. It was moved to its current location in 1964 (Showa 39) and is used as an educational museum. National Treasure Matsumoto City, Nagano Prefecture © Shinshu-Nagano Prefecture Tourism Association ">

Former Kaichi School Building

Oura Cathedral
Part of the National Treasure and World Heritage Site "Hidden Christian Sites in the Nagasaki and Amakusa Region" (registered in 2018) Nagasaki City, Nagasaki Prefecture © Nagasaki Tourism Federation

Oura Cathedral

Senpukan
Nationally designated important cultural property Osaka City, Osaka Prefecture © Osaka City ">

Senpukan

Former Junior High School
An elementary school built by local residents using their private wealth. It is a two-story wooden building built in 1875 (Meiji 8), and is the oldest existing Western-style school building in Japan. It was also known as the "Gearman School" because it used a lot of glass, which was rare at the time. The octagonal tower on the roof is a taiko tower that tells the time. Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Nationally designated Historical Site Saku City, Nagano Prefecture © Shinshu and Nagano Prefecture Tourism Association ">

Former Junior High School

Bank of Japan Head Office
Japan's central bank was established in 1882 (Meiji 15). The current main building (old building) was designed by architect Tatsuno Kingo and completed in 1896 (Meiji 29). It is one of the most important surviving Western-style buildings from the Meiji period. In the background of the photo is the new building, completed in 1973 (Showa 48). Nationally designated Important Cultural Property Chuo Ward, Tokyo ©Seishohmaru ">

Bank of Japan Head Office

Yujukan (Meiji period)
Designed by Italian architect Capelletti. It was located in the grounds of Yasukuni Shrine in Fujimi-cho, Kojimachi-ku (now Kudankita, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo). "Tokyo View Photo Edition" (1893, Meiji 26) held by the National Diet Library ">

Yujukan (Meiji period)

Rokumeikan
Uchiyamashitacho, Kojimachi Ward (now Uchisaisaicho, Chiyoda Ward, Tokyo). "Tokyo Scenery Photo Edition" (1893, Meiji 26) held by the National Diet Library ">

Rokumeikan

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

日本建築は伝統的には中国建築の一支流として位置づけられ、木造建築が主流を占める。したがって柱や梁(はり)など直線的な材料で組み立てた構造となるが、中国建築の多くが木材の露出部を彩色するのに対し、日本建築では白木のままを基本とするなど、中国とは異なる特質を有している。

　一方、西欧諸国など外国の建築はれんが造や石造のものが多く、それらは壁を主体とする面的な構成をとるのに対し、日本建築では線的な構成となる。入口や窓などの開口部を例にとれば、日本建築ではその上部に楣とよぶ水平材を置くが、外国のそれでは湾曲するアーチでせり上げるのが通例である。いわば日本建築は組立て式であり、西欧諸国の建築は積み上げ式である。日本は古くから建築用木材に恵まれていたが、巨材を挽(ひ)く鋸(のこぎり)がなく、製材上の工具に難があったため、もっぱら木目(もくめ)に楔(くさび)を打ち込んで裂き割る方法がとられた。そのため、平滑に裂けやすく耐用年数も長いヒノキが多用された。室町時代中期に大鋸(おおが)が用いられるようになり、各種木材の製材が容易になったが、それまではほとんどの用材がヒノキで占められていた。マツは中世以降、各所で多用されるようになったが、スギは軟らかいため主要材とはならず、近世以降に住宅の用材として利用されている。

［工藤圭章］

日本建築の変遷

先史時代

日本の建築もまず住居から始まるが、先土器時代は岩陰や洞穴が住居に利用されており、木材を一部組み立てたような住居は縄文早期の竪穴(たてあな)住居に初例がある。これは各地でつくられたが、地面に穴を掘り、その上に屋根をかぶせた単純なものであった。

　竪穴住居に次ぐ建築としては、弥生(やよい)前期に出現する高床(たかゆか)倉庫がある。竪穴と違って高床の建築は地上に高くつくられるので、建物内は乾燥し、倉庫のみならず、弥生後期には住居としても建てられるようになり、古墳時代へと至る。弥生時代の高床倉庫は、伝香川県出土「袈裟襷文銅鐸(けさだすきもんどうたく)」（国宝）の棟持柱(むなもちばしら)のある印刻や、奈良県田原本町唐古(からこ)遺跡出土土器の篦書(へらがき)などによりその形が知られる。

　一方、古墳時代の高床建築は奈良県河合(かわい)町佐味田(さみだ)宝塚古墳出土の家屋文鏡に図示されている。この鏡は4世紀後半のもので、高床の一つは屋根が切妻造(きりづまづくり)の倉庫、いま一つは入母屋造(いりもやづくり)の住居を示している。このほか入母屋造の竪穴住居や平地住居も表現されており、後者はおそらく掘立て柱の住居と考えられる。

　古墳時代の建築では、奈良県天理市東大寺山古墳出土の環頭大刀(かんとうのたち)の柄頭(つかがしら)が竪穴住居を表しており、また、各種の建物の形式は家形埴輪(はにわ)によって知られる。これらは大別すると住居と倉庫に分かれるが、住居でも格式の高いものは棟に鰹木(かつおぎ)をのせている。また、破風(はふ)を棟上まで延長したような千木(ちぎ)や、垂木(たるき)を棟で交差したような千木が表現されたものもある。

　竪穴住居を復原した例は静岡市の登呂(とろ)遺跡など各地にみられるが、これらの構造については、江戸時代の冶金(やきん)書『鉄山秘書』に記述されている中国地方の砂鉄精錬の高殿(たたら)とよばれる小屋の構造が参考にされている。

　高床倉庫については登呂遺跡や静岡県伊豆の国市山木遺跡から構造部材が出土し、また、愛媛県松山市古照(こでら)遺跡、福岡市湯納(ゆのう)遺跡、三重県津市納所(のうそ)遺跡などでも新例が知見されている。竪穴住居や高床倉庫の柱は地面に穴を掘り、柱根元を埋め込んで立てた掘立て柱で、根元が土で固められるため、独立した柱でも固定される。日本の建築では、古くは掘立て柱が主流で、屋根も草葺(くさぶ)きの簡単なものであった。『古事記』には、志幾(しき)の大県主(おおあがたぬし)の住宅が鰹木を棟にあげているのを雄略(ゆうりゃく)天皇がみつけて、天皇の御舎(みあらか)に似ていると怒り、焼き払うように命じたことが記されているが、群馬県伊勢崎(いせさき)市茶臼山(ちゃうすやま)古墳から出土した8棟分の家形埴輪は、主屋(おもや)が切妻造の屋根に鰹木を飾り、ほかに切妻造の付属屋2棟と小屋1棟、切妻造の高床倉庫3棟、寄棟造(よせむねづくり)の高床倉庫1棟からなる。鰹木のある住居はまさに宮殿であり、これらの埴輪群を通して前方後円墳に葬られた当時の豪族の家屋構成がうかがわれて興味深い。

　日本の神社建築は、このような伝統を継いだものと思われる。古代の人々は、神が降臨する場所を特異な地形地物に求めて、そこを神の依代(よりしろ)として崇(あが)め、世襲された宝物を祖神の霊代(たましろ)として祀(まつ)り、それを格納する倉庫が神殿に変化したのである。そのため高床建築の形をとり、切妻造として、棟上には宮殿に倣って鰹木が飾られた。御舎は御在所(みありか)、宮は御屋(みや)、祠(ほこら)は穂倉(ほくら)の転訛(てんか)したものという。こうしてみると、神の御在所となる神殿は、まさに御屋と穂倉の合成されたものといえよう。

［工藤圭章］

飛鳥・奈良時代

6世紀中ごろの仏教伝来後、本格的な寺院建築として飛鳥寺(あすかでら)が592年（崇峻天皇5）に起工された。この工事にあたっては百済(くだら)から寺工が来日しており、在来の掘立て柱の建物とはまったく違った、基壇を築き礎石を据えた上に柱を立てる礎石建ちの工法がとられた。柱の上には複雑な組物がのって桁(けた)を受け、さらに屋根には瓦(かわら)が葺かれ、加えて天空高くそびえる仏塔も建立された。それは従来の直線的な造形の素朴な建築に比べると、非常な技術的格差であり、飛鳥の人々はこの想像もできなかった建物の出現をみて、仏教建築のすばらしさに驚嘆したに違いない。日本の正統的な仏教建築は、この飛鳥寺の堂塔をもって嚆矢(こうし)とし、従来の日本の建築様式に大陸の建築様式が加えられることになった。今日では飛鳥寺の外観なども明らかでないが、現存する法隆寺西院伽藍(さいいんがらん)の前駆的なものが飛鳥寺であったと推定されている。

　法隆寺西院伽藍の建築の特徴は、俗に徳利(とくり)柱とよばれる胴膨らみのある柱、雲斗栱(くもときょう)の組物、そして隅(すみ)組物は一方向だけ突出し、軒は一軒(ひとのき)で、高欄の中備(なかぞなえ)には人字形(にんじがた)の割束(わりづか)が用いられるなどで、後世のものとはまったく異質の様式をもつ。これは魏晋(ぎしん)南北朝など中国の古いいろいろの建築様式が朝鮮半島を経由する間に混合して伝わり、飛鳥時代の日本で、それに新しい様式が付加したものと解釈されている。ここでいう新様式とは、飛鳥寺の建築に始まった飛鳥様式が、6世紀末から7世紀にかけて技術的に発展し、丸垂木(まるたるき)から角(かく)垂木へと変化し、隅扇(すみおうぎ)垂木が指垂木へと移行したような構造的進歩をさす。このころ、すでに飛鳥様式と異なる大陸の隋唐(ずいとう)の建築様式が日本に入っていたが、法隆寺は聖徳太子ゆかりの寺として、基本的には旧様式の飛鳥様式を踏襲したと考えられる。

　新しい大陸様式である隋唐の建築様式は、川原寺(かわらでら)の建築あたりから導入されたと考えられる。川原寺は積極的に中国文化を取り入れた天智(てんじ)天皇（在位661～671）が官の大寺(だいじ)として建立した寺院で、当時これと並行して罹災(りさい)した百済大寺(くだらだいじ)の再建も行われており、新しい様式が導入される素地があった。両寺とも現存しないので不明の点が多いが、現存する薬師寺東塔（730）によって当時の建築を類推できる。すなわち、薬師寺は初め藤原京につくられ、710年（和銅3）の平城京遷都とともに他の大寺とともに新都に移されたが、その際旧藤原京の伽藍をそっくり再現したのであった。

　8世紀になると、都は藤原京から平城京へと移って造宮造寺が盛んになり、官の組織として造宮省や造寺司(ぞうじし)が設置され、建築工事が発展する。藤原宮以前の宮殿建築は在来の掘立て柱建築であったが、藤原宮では宮城を画する門や、国政の中心である朝堂院の一郭は大陸の建築様式を取り入れて礎石建ち、瓦葺きの建築となった。仏教建築とともに渡来した大陸の建築様式は、宮殿建築にも適用されるようになったが、平城宮のように宮城内に多数の建物を配するには、すべて礎石建ちとするのは不可能で、天皇の居所の内裏(だいり)は伝統を重んじて掘立て柱の建物とし、官衙(かんが)の建物もほとんど掘立て柱の在来工法が踏襲されている。寺院でも伽藍中枢部は礎石建ちであったが、付属建物は掘立て柱で、いわばモニュメンタルな建物が礎石建ち、瓦葺きとして建造された。

　奈良時代には、また新しい建築様式が導入されている。たとえば奈良盛期の遺構である唐招提寺(とうしょうだいじ)金堂の場合、軒を受ける組物の三手先(みてさき)斗栱の二手目が横に連結され、また軒下は横の連結材（支輪桁(しりんけた)）を利用して小天井と支輪が張られるなど、それまでの建築とは明らかに異なった形式をみせている。奈良時代の造寺は前記のとおり官の組織によって行われたため、この新しい建築様式への一元化が進んだ。『続日本紀(しょくにほんぎ)』には大安寺の建設に携わった僧道慈が建築の技術に優れていたことが記されており、道慈は入唐(にっとう)修業中に建築技術を修得したものと思われる。奈良時代から一元化された建築様式は、こうした入唐僧によってもたらされ、それが国分寺の建設を通して各地に伝わったものとみられる。

　ところで、奈良時代には、一方において和風化が促進されるようになった。すなわち、仏教建築は本来礎石建ちで屋根は瓦葺き、床(ゆか)は土間であったが、東大寺法華堂(ほっけどう)にみられるように、床を板張りとした建物が出現し、屋根も杮葺(こけらぶ)き、檜皮葺(ひわだぶ)きの仏堂が多くなった。とくに山地に営まれる仏堂には、このような和風化されたものが多かったようである。また法隆寺東院伽藍のように、中心の堂である夢殿と、講堂に相当する伝法堂が礎石建ちの瓦葺きで、他の回廊や七丈屋(しちじょうや)は掘立て柱で檜皮葺きの建物として建てられるなど、和風と大陸様式の折衷構成をとるものもあった。

　仏教の儀式も大陸伝来のものに従っていたが、やがて日本式の礼法によるようになり、礼拝(らいはい)空間に板敷きが求められた。また本来、仏堂は仏だけの場、いわば仏を祀る大形の厨子(ずし)的な扱いがなされていたが、仏を礼拝するための礼堂が仏堂に付設されることになり、仏堂の前面の庇(ひさし)が礼堂に利用されたり、さらに前面に別棟の礼堂が建てられるなど、双堂(ならびどう)の形態をとるようになった。このように奈良時代は、日本の風土に適応した仏堂が建てられ始めた時代でもある。

［工藤圭章］

平安時代

794年（延暦13）都は平安京に移るが、平城京の諸大寺はそのまま奈良にとどめ、新都では東寺、西寺の2寺だけを設けた。この2寺の造営は従来の様式の踏襲であったが、入唐して密教を学んだ最澄(さいちょう)・空海が新たに天台・真言(しんごん)の宗派をおこしたことにより、密教に基づく建築がつくられるようになった。それまで仏塔は九重・七重・五重・三重のものが建てられていたが、密教の影響を受けて建てられたのが多宝塔である。

　一方、延暦寺(えんりゃくじ)の常行堂(じょうぎょうどう)もこの時代に建設されたが、この建物は方五間堂で屋根の頂部に如意宝珠をのせた宝形造(ほうぎょうづくり)で、これも多宝塔と同じく平安時代になって初めて出現したものである。前面の庇を礼堂のように扱った奈良時代の建物には、唐招提寺金堂があるが、平安時代になると、東寺の金堂や食堂(じきどう)のように、前面庇のさらに前面に孫庇(まごびさし)を設けて、そこを礼堂としたため、仏堂の奥行が4間から5間へと、1間深められるようになった。孫庇の多用も平安建築の特徴にあげられよう。

　このような平面の変化とともに、構造にも変化が生じた。中国では782年（建中3）につくられた南禅寺大殿で、肘木(ひじき)形を通(とおし)肘木上に現し、部材を一木化することが試みられていたが、日本では952年（天暦6）に完成した醍醐寺(だいごじ)五重塔で、丸桁(がぎょう)の下に実(さね)肘木を一部造出した一木化が試みられ始めた。その後この傾向は高まり、現存するものでは1171年（承安1）の兵庫県一乗寺三重塔に、南禅寺大殿のような部材の一木化が認められる。一方、日本のような雨量の多い多湿性の風土では、建物の保存上、雨に対する対策が考慮されねばならなかった。まず、雨はけの面では、屋根の勾配(こうばい)が強められた。古代の建築は、たとえば母屋(おもや)では、新薬師寺本堂のように屋根裏の垂木がみえるものや、あるいは唐招提寺金堂のように天井が張られるものがあったが、庇は一般に天井が張られず、屋根裏の垂木をそのままみせる、いわゆる化粧屋根裏天井となっていた。したがって、屋根の勾配を強める方法として、屋上に屋根を重ねるような形がとられた。このような屋根を野(の)屋根とよぶが、法隆寺大講堂（990再建）の屋根がその初期のものとして知られる。

　野屋根ができるようになると、庇の化粧屋根の勾配は、雨の流れに関係がなくなるので、勾配を緩くすることが可能となり、側柱(がわばしら)を高くすることが考えられた。これは採光の点では有利で、建物内を明るくする効果を生み出した。また、化粧屋根と野屋根との間の空間を利用して軒先を支持するために桔木(はねぎ)が入れられるようになり、桔木の存在により軒の出が深まるようになった。屋根の勾配を強めること、軒の出が深まること、両者とも雨仕舞(あまじまい)にはきわめて有効であり、加えて床張りの建物では床下の通気が図られるようになって、建物の保存に好影響を与えることになった。

　これはまた、建物の外観をも変えることであった。屋根が高まり、側柱も高くなって、全体として建物は立ちが高くなった。床張りの建物では周囲に縁が回されるので、それが土間床の建物の基壇のように建物の足元を引き締める意匠的効果をもたらした。また、従来は建物を地上の湿気から防ぐことを考慮して基壇が高められていたが、床下の通気が容易となって、高い基壇は省略されるようになった。奈良時代から平安時代になって、仏堂は風土に適した日本的な建物に変わっていったのである。

　一方、平安時代は、894年（寛平6）に遣唐使の廃止が行われてから大陸との公的な交流がなくなり、奈良時代以来の建築様式が日本的な発展をみたともいえる。前述の、構造面では部材の一木化が認められる一乗寺三重塔においては、側回りではかつて醍醐寺五重塔のように2段に組み上げられていた三手先組物が、上段には通肘木を入れて構造強化が図られているし、また組物間の中備(なかぞなえ)に入れられていた間斗束(けんとづか)が撤去されて、意匠を考慮して本蟇股(ほんかえるまた)が入れられている。中備に本蟇股が用いられるのは平安時代からで、これも新しい発展といえよう。このように、奈良時代に唐から伝来された建築様式が平安時代を通じて日本的に発展したものを、和様の建築様式とよんでいる。

　多宝塔や常行堂から出発した宝形造の阿弥陀堂(あみだどう)は、平安時代の特色ある建物の一つであるが、それとともに庇や孫庇を利用した礼拝空間を設けた仏堂が、内陣・外陣を構成する奥行のより深い本堂形式の建物に発展する。その発生的なものとして現存するのが永暦(えいりゃく)2年（1161）の棟木銘をもつ當麻寺(たいまでら)本堂である。この堂はこれより早い平安初期に、孫庇の礼堂をもつ仏堂として建設されたが、礼拝空間の整備が図られ、内陣・外陣を構成する本堂に改められたもので、あたかも内陣・外陣が双堂の造合いの軒部分を省略して並べたような形を示している。大屋根の小屋組みはこの双堂部分の棟に大梁を渡して組み立てられており、野屋根がさらに発展した形をとる。1150年（久安6）に建設された高野山金剛峯寺(こうやさんこんごうぶじ)金堂は、内陣・中陣・外陣を構成し、仏堂の前に礼堂を並べた形式であるが、仏堂の側柱を礼堂の柱とつなぐ大梁を入れることによって省略し、そこを中陣としていたことが古図から知られる。これにより大梁を連続して架けることによって柱を省略する手法が、中世以前にすでに試みられていたことがわかる。

　ほかに平安時代の建物としては、現存しないが寝殿造の住宅がある。奈良時代の庶民の住宅は平城京の宅地の発掘調査によって、掘立て柱建物であったことが知られており、宮殿建築でも居住用のものはやはり掘立て柱建物が主流を占めていた。また、現在は仏堂風に改められ礎石建ちになっているが、解体修理時の調査によって、奈良時代の高級貴族住宅の唯一の遺構とみられる法隆寺東院伝法堂は、当初は掘立て柱であったかもしれない。そして、奈良時代の住宅は、他の住宅跡の発掘調査例からみても、宅地にそれぞれ独立して建物が建てられるのが一般的であった。これに対して寝殿造の住宅は各建物が廊で連なり、互いに連絡が図られていた。これは、内裏の殿舎配置を祖形にしてそれを簡略化したものと推測されるが、中央に正殿としての寝殿を建て、その左右に対称的に対屋(たいのや)を配するのが基本であった。しかし、現実には対の一方が対代(たいだい)として小規模につくられたり、あるいは一方が省略されて対称性が崩れるものが多かった。初期の寝殿造の貴族住宅の形態については判然としないが、12世紀の寝殿造住宅のようすは絵巻物に写実的に描かれているので大概は知られている。そして高級貴族の寝殿造をさらに簡略化したものが、下級貴族や釈家(しゃっけ)・武家の住宅へと及んでいったと思われる。これらの住宅では、仏堂に用いられた扉のほかに、蔀(しとみ)や遣戸(やりど)が多用されており、建具の種類が豊富になってきたことが知られる。

［工藤圭章］

鎌倉時代

日本建築の中世は、源平争乱で1180年（治承4）に焼失した南都東大寺および興福寺の復興から始まるが、これに際し新しく中国の大仏様、禅宗様の建築様式が導入され、日本建築は著しく発展した。大仏様は、東大寺の鎌倉復興に尽力した俊乗房重源(しゅんじょうぼうちょうげん)が、宋(そう)の建築様式を彼なりに解釈した様式であった。彼は東大寺の早急な復興のため、大量生産が可能なように部材を標準化し、建物の強度を図るために各柱は貫(ぬき)で連結した。また、屋根は野屋根をつくらず、勾配の強い屋根とし、軒も一軒とし、軒の隅は扇垂木として放射状に収めたのである。この様式は和様に一部取り入れられ、新和様として主として奈良地方に広く普及した。

　続いて禅宗が布教されるに伴い、宋直輸入の建築様式が日本にもたらされた。この様式は軸部に比べ組物を小さくして柱上の台輪(だいわ)に並べ、組物に組まれた尾垂木は内部は持送りとして母屋を支えるなど、まったく新しい構造原理を取り入れたもので、入側柱(いりがわばしら)と側柱をつなぐ繋梁(つなぎばり)も海老虹梁(えびこうりょう)として高さを違えて連結するなど、新機軸を生み出した。これが禅宗様であり、やがて大仏様や禅宗様の長所を和様に応用して、これらが混然と一体化された折衷様が確立される。折衷様は、どの部分を和様、どの部分を禅宗様とするかは、構造・意匠とも造営にあたった技術者が独自に決定したので、かつて和様で一元的な構造であった日本建築も多元的になり、建物ごとに個性のあるものが出現した。そしてまた、鎌倉時代は幕府の行政が安定したため、技術者の交流も京・鎌倉と五山の大寺の造営に伴って頻繁に行われ、建築技術が全国的に安定して伝播(でんぱ)するようになった。栃木県鑁阿寺(ばんなじ)本堂、山梨県大善寺本堂、福井県妙通寺本堂、和歌山県長保寺本堂、広島県明王院本堂、香川県本山寺(もとやまでら)本堂、愛媛県太山寺(たいさんじ)本堂など、近畿地方以外でも各地に特徴ある名建築が建立された。

［工藤圭章］

室町・桃山時代

室町時代になると、鎌倉時代に発達した折衷様が主流となり、また、禅宗建築では禅宗様を主体にした建築が建てられ、多様となる。ただし、大仏様は新和様に吸収され、折衷様のなかに生かされて、純粋な和様と同様に、大仏様として存続することがなくなったのである。

　室町後期はいわゆる戦国の世で、中央集権が崩れて各地に戦国大名が領国を制するようになると、技術者の全国的交流は閉ざされて、建物にも地方性が現れるようになる。なかでも和泉(いずみ)（大阪府）、紀伊（和歌山県）の各地では装飾性を強調し、細部に彫刻・彩色を施すものが現れ、次代の桃山時代の華麗な建築の源流的なものが、地方色として狭い範囲で普及する。一方、戦国の世の習いとして室町末期から城郭建築が発展し、物見のために多重の櫓(やぐら)が建設されて天守閣の発生をみる。城郭は防備を主とした軍事的な建築であるが、一方では領主の権威の誇示のため壮麗なものが建てられるようになり、とくに織田信長が琵琶湖(びわこ)南岸に建設した安土(あづち)城は、壮大な天守閣の先駆けとなった。

　城郭の建設には社寺建築の技術者を直接必要としなかったが、規模が壮大になると彼らの技術を必要とした。また、臣下との面接のほか使節の接待の場でもあった城郭内の居館は格式高く優美な室内意匠を凝らし、欄間(らんま)や金碧画(きんぺきが)などで飾りたてたので、建築技術者以外に、画師(えし)、彫刻家の参加も得て、建築が総合芸術の所産として評価されるようになった。そして、居館の主室には床(とこ)・棚・書院や帳台構(ちょうだいがまえ)など座敷飾りが整えられ、書院造として確立した。豊臣秀吉(とよとみひでよし)が1587年（天正15）に建設した聚楽第(じゅらくだい)は書院造建築の粋を尽くしたもので、門なども彫刻で飾られ華麗な彩色が施されていた。このころの建築美をとどめるものでは、豊臣秀吉の霊廟(れいびょう)豊国廟の遺構と伝えられる滋賀県竹生(ちくぶ)島の都久夫須麻(つくぶすま)神社本殿や、宝厳寺(ほうごんじ)唐門(からもん)が著名である。このような建築の先駆的なものが、前に触れたように和泉・紀伊の神社建築にもみられるが、それらがこの時期に桃山建築として開花した。1607年（慶長12）完成の京都北野天満宮本殿・拝殿や宮城県大崎八幡宮(はちまんぐう)本殿・拝殿はその代表的なものである。後者には紀伊の大工刑部国次が参画しており、続いて完成をみた宮城県瑞巌寺(ずいがんじ)本堂では、大崎八幡宮の棟梁(とうりょう)であった山城(やましろ)（京都府）の中村吉次がこれにあたり、紀伊熊野(くまの)から用材が運ばれるなど、技術者や用材の交流が図られ、東北地方でも近畿と同等のものが建立されたのである。

［工藤圭章］

江戸時代

江戸時代になっても、建築には華麗さが珍重された。1617年（元和3）に建立された静岡県久能山(くのうざん)東照宮本殿では組物に丸彫りの彫刻が用いられ、同じころ建立された江戸増上寺の徳川家康の尊像を祀った安国殿（第二次世界大戦で焼失）では、尾垂木先が獣頭の彫り物になるなど、建築の構造材を彫刻化することが始められている。部材の彫刻化など多彩になると、湾曲する尾垂木や拳鼻(こぶしばな)がついた変化の多い禅宗様が好まれるのが当然で、和様とも禅宗様ともつかない折衷様が主流を占めるのである。一方、純粋の禅宗様も京都の大徳寺、南禅寺、妙心寺など禅宗伽藍の造営にあたって採用されるなど、近世になってまた違った発展をみている。しかし、禅宗寺院にあっても伽藍周辺に営まれた塔頭(たっちゅう)寺院では、本堂に方丈が利用され、和様を主体とした住宅風の建築が建てられている。

　近世初期に発達した書院造は、一面装飾性の強い豪華なものであったが、江戸時代に入ると繊細さを旨とする書院造が出現する。それは茶室に始まる数寄屋(すきや)建築の影響を受けて面皮(めんかわ)柱が使われ、壁も聚楽壁や錆壁(さびかべ)が塗られる。これらの座敷では、床・棚・書院などに銘木・珍木が珍重された。1615年ころ（元和年間）から造営された桂離宮(かつらりきゅう)の書院群や1656～1657年（明暦2～3）建立の曼殊院(まんしゅいん)書院や西本願寺黒(くろ)書院は、数寄屋風書院の好例である。

　近世になると、また黄檗(おうばく)宗の伝来に伴って、黄檗様の建築が造営された。長崎では1644年（正保1）から崇福寺(そうふくじ)の伽藍が黄檗様で建設されている。この寺は、同じ長崎の興福寺、福済寺(ふくさいじ)とともに、長崎在住の福州人の寺院として開かれた寺で、両寺に開創当初の建築が残らないこともあって、崇福寺の建築群は明(みん)末清(しん)初の中国建築のおもかげを残すものとして注目される。1662年（寛文2）には京都万福寺の造営が行われ、以下黄檗様は黄檗宗の布教により全国的に広まり、静岡県宝林寺本堂のように地方にもこのころの優品が残っている。

　江戸時代を通じて社寺建築は折衷様が主流を占め、細部装飾が発達した。とくに彫り物が多用されて壁面を飾るようになり、建築そのものより彫刻の美が建築の価値を高める変則的な結果をもたらした。彫刻や漆・彩色で飾られる建築は日光の東照宮社殿や大猷院(だいゆういん)霊廟など関東で盛行し、関西では比較的少ない。ほかに関東では埼玉県歓喜院(かんぎいん)聖天堂、群馬県妙義神社、千葉県新勝寺三重塔・釈迦堂(しゃかどう)が著名であり、幕末期のものには静岡浅間(せんげん)神社の社殿が知られている。

　1858年（安政5）アメリカほか4か国と修好通商条約を結んでから、開港場に居留地が設けられ、洋風住宅が建てられ始めた。長崎の旧グラバー邸や旧オルト邸が明治以前に建てられたものとして現存する。居留地の住宅は外国人の指導のもとに日本人の大工がつくったもので、日本建築としてはまったく新しいタイプのものであった。それまでは都市というと城下町が主で、そこには武家住宅と商家が区画された。武家住宅は書院造の簡略化されたものであり、商家は塗屋造(ぬりやづくり)のものが多く、とくに耐火を考慮して土蔵造のものまであった。一方、農村では農家はそれぞれの地方の特色をもち、きわめて保守的な平面と構造を伝えていた。したがって、当時すでに建築の種類は多種多様であった。

　明治になると日本人独自の手になる擬洋風建築が始められ、現存するものでは1876年（明治9）に建設された長野県の開智(かいち)学校が有名。当時公共建築は洋風建築に倣ってつくられたが、窓回りはアーチ状に木枠を組み、建物の隅はコーナーストーン風に木組をみせたり、漆喰(しっくい)を塗り上げて、写実的に処理した。明治になって実際に海外で建築学を学んで帰朝する者が出現するまで、在来の大工が見よう見まねで洋風建築を建てており、1868年（慶応4）の築地(つきじ)ホテル館や1872年の国立第一銀行などは、錦絵(にしきえ)を見ると、当時の擬洋風建築を如実に現していて興味深い。

［工藤圭章］

日本の近代・現代建築

西洋建築移植時代

明治の指導者たちは、欧米の圧倒的に優越した文化に直面して、産業技術や軍備などを早急に摂取する必要を痛感した。彼らにとって西欧化と近代化は同義語であり、明治維新後の近代社会に対応する新しい建築課題にまず対応したのは、いわゆるお雇い外国人の技師や建築家であった。これらの明治初期の建築はおおむねヨーロッパ19世紀の折衷主義とよばれる様式で、この古めかしい様式を否定するところからヨーロッパの近代建築は始まったのであるが、日本の場合はむしろその折衷主義が近代化への母体となった。それには、幕末諸藩によって開かれた諸工業、製鉄所や造船所、紡績所などの諸施設が洋風建築の先駆となっており、長崎製鉄所（1861）や大浦天主堂（1865）などはその例である。維新政府は諸藩の諸施設を受け継ぐと同時に、新規に産業設備を設ける必要から多くの外国人技師を雇い入れ、林忠恕(はやしただよし)（1835―1893）、立川知方(たてかわともかた)（1825―1894）、朝倉清一（1840―1903）らが補佐した。1873年（明治6）にはイギリス人ダイエルらが工学寮の教師として来日し、本格的な工学教育が開始された。

　こうした外国人技師の残した初期の作品としてはイギリスのウォートルスの泉布観(せんぷかん)、イタリアのカペレッティGiovanni Vincenzo Cappelletti（1843―1887）の遊就館があるが、もっとも日本に影響を与えたのはイギリス人のコンドルで、鹿鳴館(ろくめいかん)（1883）、岩崎久弥(ひさや)邸（1896、現存）、三井倶楽部(くらぶ)（1913）などがある。

　一方、民間の棟梁・職人あるいは官公庁の下級技術者たちは、依然として日本的伝統の小屋組みを応用し、内外の意匠はコロニアル・スタイルといったいわゆる擬洋風（開化式）建築を生み出した。これは1872年の学制頒布を機に小学校や役場の建物として全国的に波及した。中込(なかごみ)学校（佐久市）、睦沢学校（甲府市）、開智学校（松本市）、済生館病院（山形市）などが現存するが、このスタイルは明治20年代以降は影を潜める。

　工部大学校造家学科の設置は1879年であるが、そこでコンドルの教育を受けた辰野金吾(たつのきんご)、片山東熊(かたやまとうくま)、曽禰達蔵(そねたつぞう)、佐立七次郎(さたてしちじろう)（1856―1922）、同時代アメリカで教育を受けた妻木頼黄(つまきよりなか)、フランスで学んだ山口半六ら本格的日本人建築家が明治20年代から活躍を始めた。辰野の日本銀行本店（1896）、妻木の横浜正金銀行（1904）、片山によるネオ・バロック風の赤坂離宮（1906）は明治を代表する記念碑的建築である。

［近江　栄　2018年9月19日］

欧米追随からの脱皮

これより先1891年の濃尾(のうび)地震はれんが造の建造物に大きい被害を与え、外国建築をそのまま導入することの危険を教えた。この教訓と1906年（明治39）のサンフランシスコ大地震から学んで、佐野利器(さのとしかた)を中心に耐震耐火構造の鉄筋コンクリートや鉄骨造が積極的に取り入れられるようになる。新時代を象徴する鉄材の応用は、いち早く鉄道橋や造船の分野に試みられたが、建築への利用の先例としては秀英舎工場（1894）があり、これは造船技師若山鉉吉(わかやまげんきち)（1856―1899）の設計によるパイプ構造である。オフィスビルとしては銀座黒沢ビル（1910、黒沢貞次郎（1875―1953）設計）、三井物産横浜支店（1911、遠藤於菟(えんどうおと)（1865―1943）設計）があり、また鉄骨とれんがの混構造で帳壁（カーテン・ウォール）の祖形となった佐野の丸善書店（1909）がある。

　議院建築（帝国議会議事堂）の建設は明治政府の重要課題であったが、1910年にその建築準備委員会が開かれ、討論会で、次代を担う建築家から国民的様式の確立について提案がなされた。討論の結果は不毛ではあったが、こうした議論がもたれたこと、そして設計案を公募するなど、模倣と習得の時代が終わり、次の新しい飛躍の時代に入ったことを示している。

［近江　栄　2018年9月19日］

分離派と日本のCIAM

1910年代には海外のアール・ヌーボーやゼツェッションの活動が新鮮な響きをもって伝えられるようになる。1920年（大正9）東京帝国大学建築科を卒業する学生グループ、石本喜久治（1894―1963）、堀口捨己(ほりぐちすてみ)、滝沢真弓(たきざわまゆみ)（1896―1983）、矢田茂（1896―1958）、山田守、森田慶一（1895―1983）ら6名は「分離派建築会」を結成し、激しい宣言文で当時の様式的な建築制作の風潮を批判し、創作を標榜(ひょうぼう)した。分離派が実際的な活動に乗り出すのは2年後で、山田は東京中央電信局を、石本は東京朝日新聞社を、堀口は大正博覧会会場を設計した。当時のヨーロッパの表現主義の流れをくむ分離派は若い層に多くの同調者を得、分離派に続く「創宇社」（1923）や類似のグループが生まれた。これらはいずれもその活動の主体は展覧会や講演会であったが、建築家がこれまで手がけてきた大建築のほかに庶民住宅にも目を向け、合理主義的な方法と階級意識とを結び付けた点が注目される。1930年（昭和5）ごろから動線という建築平面の人間の動態分析や、人体、家具の寸法、規格、住宅のマスプロといった問題も取り上げられるようになる。

　1927年7月に京都の建築家を中心に「インターナショナル建築会」が結成された。この会は機能主義を目ざし、その綱領にあわせて「真正なるローカリティに根底を置く」ことを提唱し、その独自性と成果が期待されたが、実態は機能と合理性を追求するCIAM(シアム)（近代建築国際会議）を超えるものではなかった。

　ヨーロッパのCIAMは個々の建築の造形よりも社会的な問題として建築を国際的にとらえようとする姿勢を示し、その第2回の会合では「生活最小限住宅」がテーマに選ばれた。ここにはル・コルビュジエに師事する前川国男、日本から山田守が参加して、日本の建築家もようやく国際舞台に登場し、インターナショナル・スタイルが本格的に日本に導入されるきっかけとなった。

　こうした前衛的な思潮とは別に、銀行、会社などの民間商業建築は、古典主義やネオ・バロックなどさまざまな様式を消化しつつ、日本各地に広まっていった。

［近江　栄　2018年9月19日］

国粋主義の風潮

和洋折衷と近代化の相克は避けて通れない問題であった。やがて民族国粋主義が台頭してくると、吉田鉄郎の東京中央郵便局（1931）を典型とする合理主義建築に対して、東京帝室博物館（1937、渡辺仁設計）、九段軍人会館（1934、川元良一設計）のように時代に迎合する風潮が建築界にも生まれる。こうした国粋主義の高揚期に来日したのがB・タウトで、彼は伊勢(いせ)神宮や桂離宮などを賞賛することによって、伝統的な日本美への回帰を促進する役割を果たした。

　日本の近代建築がこれから伸展しようとするやさき、1937年パリ万国博に出品した坂倉準三の日本館を例外として、戦時体制がその正常な発展を阻止した。個々の建築にかわって農漁村の住宅改善や都市計画が建築家の命題となったが、それは戦時中には実現されず、むしろ戦後の建築活動の源泉となった。そして、日本の近代建築運動は、第二次世界大戦の戦災によって戦前の20％に近い建物を失うという悲惨な結末をもって終わる。

［近江　栄］

現代

戦時下に繰り返し行われた日本的デザインを模索するコンペに重ねて当選した丹下健三(たんげけんぞう)は、そのデザイン手法を戦後にも継承し、木造建築の構成と木割の美学から引き出した伝統美と近代合理主義が交錯する独自のデザインを生み出した。広島平和記念館（1952）や香川県庁舎（1958）がその代表で、1950年代に展開された伝統論争に一つの頂点を築き、丹下のデザインは全国的な流行をみた。しかし彼はその後の日本の経済成長のなかで、これまでの「わび」「さび」的なイメージからくる「うつろいやすい伝統」はもはや克服すべきであると説いて、機敏に自らの変身を予感させていた。この変身は、当時国際的に造形主義的デザインが台頭し、ル・コルビュジエのロンシャン教会堂を先駆けとして、サーリネンのTWAターミナル、J・ウッツォンのシドニー・オペラ・ハウス・コンペ当選案などが相次いで紹介された時期と符合している。

　丹下はこのような海外の多彩な造形活動に呼応して、1964年（昭和39）オリンピック施設の東京都屋内体育館で吊(つり)屋根のダイナミックな造形表現を示した。これは高度成長を達成した日本の象徴的な作品として国際的な注目を集めた。こうして1960年代は現代技術の可能性を追求した丹下健三、坪井善勝(つぼいよしかつ)、前川国男、横山不学らの作品が注目される一方で、村野藤吾(むらのとうご)や白井晟一(しらいせいいち)はこうした先鋭なモダニズムの時流とは一定の距離を保ちながら、独自の折衷的装飾性を巧みに昇華させ、村野は日本生命ビル（1964）、白井は親和銀行本店（1968）など、次々と新鮮な話題作を生み出していった。

　1970年代の日本の高度経済成長は全世界の注目の的となり、いまや欧米に追い付くのではなく、先進国の教科書なしに、世界に冠たる工業生産力と対比される生活環境の貧しさを抱えながら、自ら新たな展望を模索しなければならなかった。やがて1970年の「進歩と調和」を掲げた大阪万国博覧会に突入していくのだが、すでに世界的な規模で脱工業化が進展し、人間疎外の克服、余暇への認識などが注目され始め、もはやこれまでのように工業化そのものを造形の理念とすることは成り立たなくなっていた。

　すでに1960年代から建築のデザインは多様化し、1人の建築家の作品も次々と変貌(へんぼう)し、街にはつかのまの流行現象が目だってくる。こうした混迷現象を背景として、丹下門下の磯崎新(いそざきあらた)は、これまで近代建築が背負ってきた「建築を社会改革の手段」とする重荷から建築を解放し、他領域の芸術との連繋(れんけい)を援用することによって近代建築の再生を図り、著書『建築の解体』によって若者たちに影響を与えた。一方、建築評論家長谷川堯(はせがわたかし)は、村野藤吾を育てた様式の建築のもつ豊饒(ほうじょう)さへの回帰と、近代建築理念によって失われたものの大きさを訴え、『神殿か獄舎か』（1972）の著作によって戦前の洋風建築を再評価し、その全国調査を提唱した。

　1970年代なかばからの建築デザインの多様化と混迷はいまだに確たる展望をみいだしえないでいる。1960年代においては丹下の系譜が普遍的で、村野の系譜は特異とされてきたが、大阪万国博以降は逆転し、工業生産を主軸とする高度経済成長型の発想に反省が求められるようになった。やがて磯崎はポスト・モダニズムの大作として、つくばセンタービルを発表する。これはルネサンスからマニエリスム、さらに現代建築の引用、もじり、反転といった手法で集大成された、きわめてユニークな表現として話題となった。

　1980年代初頭を飾る作品には反近代主義ともいえる新高輪(しんたかなわ)プリンスホテル（村野）、レイト・モダニズムの赤坂プリンスホテル（丹下）がある。このほか、日本現代建築のもう一つの動向として、近代建築と伝統が混在併存する大江宏(おおえひろし)の国立能楽堂など一連の作品の展開も見逃せない。さらに共生の思想を主唱した黒川紀章(くろかわきしょう)の内外での活躍も注目された。

［近江　栄］

『山口廣・村松貞次郎他著『日本の近代建築』（1981・環境文化研究所）』▽『日本建築学会編『近代建築史図集』（1976・彰国社）』▽『稲垣栄三著『日本の近代建築――その成立過程』全2冊（1979・鹿島出版会）』▽『太田博太郎・福山敏男他著『新訂建築学大系4Ⅰ　日本建築史』（1968・彰国社）』▽『福山敏男著『日本建築史の研究』（1980・綜芸舎）』▽『太田博太郎著『日本建築史論集1　日本建築の特質』（1983・岩波書店）』▽『鈴木嘉吉編『国宝事典5　建造物』（1985・講談社）』

薬師寺東塔と唐招提寺金堂の三手先

新薬師寺本堂、法隆寺大講堂、當麻寺本堂…

一乗寺三重塔組物

五重塔の各部名称（醍醐寺）

寝殿造（東三条殿復原平面図）

明王院

都久夫須麻神社

宝厳寺唐門

大崎八幡宮

瑞巌寺

久能山東照宮本殿

崇福寺〈長崎市〉

旧グラバー住宅（グラバー邸）

旧開智学校校舎
1876年（明治9）竣工の旧制小学校校舎。東京の開成学校（東京大学の前身）を模した木造2階建て建築で、中央には八角塔がそびえる。擬洋風学校建築を代表する建造物の一つである。1964年（昭和39）に現在地へ移築、教育博物館として利用されている。国宝　長野県松本市©信州・長野県観光協会">

旧開智学校校舎

大浦天主堂

泉布観

旧中込学校
地元住民が私財を投じて建築した小学校。1875年（明治8）建築の木造2階建てで、現存する洋風学校建築としては日本最古級である。当時では珍しいガラスを多用したことから「ギヤマン学校」ともよばれた。屋上の八角塔は時を告げるための太鼓楼。国指定重要文化財　国指定史跡　長野県佐久市©信州・長野県観光協会">

旧中込学校

日本銀行本店
1882年（明治15）に設立された日本の中央銀行。現在の本館（旧館）の建物は建築家辰野金吾の設計で、96年（明治29）に完成した。現存する明治時代の洋風建築のなかでももっとも重要な建造物の一つである。写真後方は1973年（昭和48）に完成した新館。国指定重要文化財　東京都中央区©Seishohmaru">

日本銀行本店

遊就館（明治時代）
イタリアの建築家カペレッティの設計。麹町区富士見町（現在の東京都千代田区九段北）の靖国神社境内にあった。『東京景色写真版』（1893年〈明治26〉）国立国会図書館所蔵">

遊就館（明治時代）

鹿鳴館
麹町区内山下町（現在の東京都千代田区内幸町）。『東京景色写真版』（1893年〈明治26〉）国立国会図書館所蔵">

鹿鳴館

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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