Film was invented and released in the United States and France at the end of the 19th century, and was introduced to Japan within a year or two, where production began. Since then, Japanese films have a history of over 100 years, and have always been popular as entertainment for the masses, and at times have moved people as excellent works of art. Although the market for Japanese films has been almost exclusively domestic, they have attracted great interest overseas, both in terms of art and as a reflection of culture. Since the 1960s, film has ceded its throne as entertainment to the spread of television, but it still has its own unique fan base, especially among the younger generation, and, together with television, it forms the core of visual culture. [Naoki Togawa] Silent film eraAt the end of the 19th century, the Kinetoscope, invented by American Thomas Edison, was imported to Japan in 1896 (Meiji 29), and the Cinematograph, invented by the French Lumiere brothers, was imported the following year in 1897. Both were released under the name of "motion pictures." Eventually, films began to be produced domestically as well, and in addition to live-action scenes of places such as Ginza and Asakusa Nakamise, films such as "Momijigari" (Maple Leaf Viewing) were also made, in which kabuki actors performed outdoors against hung backdrops. In the early days of cinema, as in other countries, it was common in Japan to show a series consisting of live-action films and several short, skit-style films, but gradually live-action films disappeared and feature films changed to feature-length films. However, in Japan, from the very beginning, it was customary to have a benshi (moving-picture narrator, shortened to katsuben, and later called an expositor) who would speak the lines and explain the scenes beside the screen during the screening, and this continued throughout silent films. Furthermore, female actors were used as a matter of course in early Japanese films, and it was not until the latter half of the Taisho period that actresses began to be commonly used. In 1912 (Taisho 1), four companies including Yokota Shokai merged to form the Nippon Katsudo Shashin Kabushiki Gaisha (Nikkatsu Film Company), which produced period films starring Onoe Matsunosuke, directed by Makino Shozo, at a studio in Kyoto, and new-school films featuring female actors at the Mukojima Studio in Tokyo. Looking back, these films seem absurd and simplistic, but they nevertheless gained a remarkable popularity and quickly became a form of entertainment for the masses. This was because motion pictures spread throughout the country thanks to admission fees far cheaper than those for plays at the time, and because permanent cinemas were springing up all over the country. In addition, the novelty of the moving pictures, combined with the ease of understanding provided by the narrator's explanations, the magical appeal of the images, and the popularity of the stars, attracted people's strong interest as a new form of entertainment. However, it wasn't until the middle of the silent film era, around 1918, that Japanese films developed their own unique expressive techniques. From that time on, a movement spread among filmmakers to make films that had their own style, rather than imitating stage plays, and this resulted in films that were called purely cinematic, such as Kaeriyamanorimasa's The Radiance of Life and The Maiden of the Deep Mountains (both 1918), and Eda Masayoshiro's (1888-1944) Song of Sorrow (1919). This was followed by "Amateur Club" (1920), directed by Kurihara Thomas (1885-1926) and written by Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, and "Souls on the Street" (1921), directed by Murata Minoru, with a script by Ushihara Kiyohiko (1897-1985), among others, which attracted attention for their innovative approaches. However, the heyday of full-scale art films came in the late 1920s (the end of the Taisho era to the beginning of the Showa era), at the end of the silent film era. While sword fighting films with lively fighting scenes were popular among period dramas, there were a series of powerful works that exuded a nihilistic atmosphere in the protagonists' cynical ways of life, such as Orochi (1925), starring Bandō Tsumasaburo and directed by Futakawa Buntarō (1899-1966), and the Chuji Travel Diary trilogy (1927), starring Ōkochi Denjirō and directed by Ito Daisuke. In contemporary drama, tragedies in the vein of the Shinpa school, as well as lyrical films and melodramas, dominated the scene, but there was a rush to produce fresh films with unique styles, such as Gosho Heinosuke's Village Bride (1928), which blended in depictions of nature, and Ozu Yasujiro's College Was a Departure (1929), which depicted the sorrows of the lives of ordinary people. In addition, so-called "tendency films" with socially critical claims were produced in both period and contemporary dramas, and these were also a reaction to the economic and social uncertainty of the time. The prosperity of this late silent film era was brought about by the stability of production companies such as Nikkatsu and Shochiku, as well as the thriving independent production companies centered around actors such as Bando Tsumasaburo, Kataoka Chiezo, Arashi Kanjuro, and Ichikawa Utaemon, and it can be said that film was strengthening its economic foundation while gaining support from the public. At the same time that entertainment films were increasingly penetrating the public, bold experimental films such as Kinugasa Teinosuke's "Crazy Page" (1926) were also made, and Japanese film as a whole was broadening its scope greatly. [Naoki Togawa] After the start of talkiesJapan's first full-fledged talkie (film with sound) was Madame and Wife, directed by Gosho Heinosuke in 1931 and starring Tanaka Kinuyo, but for several years silent and talkie films were made in parallel. As the full-fledged talkie era began in the mid-1930s, the content of Japanese films became even richer with the adaptation of literary works into films. Literary films such as Shimazu Yasujiro's Koto and Sasuke (1935), Uchida Tomu's The Theater of Life (1936), Itami Mansaku's Akanishi Kakita (1936), Tasaka Tomotaka's Roadside Stone (1938), and Toyoda Shiro's Young People (1937) were born. In addition, Kinugasa Teinosuke's "Yukinojohenge" trilogy (1935-1936), starring Hayashi Chojiro (later known as Hasegawa Kazuo), was a huge hit as an entertaining period drama. On the other hand, films based on original scripts that were not based on original works were also actively produced, such as "Naniwa Elegy" and "Sisters of Gion" (both 1936), directed by Mizoguchi Kenji and starring Yamada Isuzu, Ozu Yasujiro's "Only Son" (1936), Uchida Tomu's "Infinite Advance" (1937), and Yamanaka Sadao's "Ninjyo Kami Fuusen" (1937). As the militaristic tone grew stronger after the Manchurian Incident in 1931, this was reflected in many films, from war movies like "Five Scouts" (1938) to "Horses" (1941), a story about a farmer raising war horses, and this tendency intensified with the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941. So-called war-boosting films such as "The Battle of Hawaii and Malaya" (1942), "Kato Hayabusa Fighter Squadron" (1944), and "Shoot That Flag" (1944) were made one after another. Among them, Inagaki Hiroshi's "The Life of a Outlaw Matsu" (1943) attracted attention as a masterpiece that celebrated humanism in a world unrelated to war. With the advent of the talkie era, independent production companies with actors and directors disappeared due to ballooning production costs, and a mass production system was established by large companies with film studios, but due to corporate control during the war, film companies were reorganized and consolidated into three companies: Shochiku, Toho, and Daiei, which was a merger of other companies including Nikkatsu, and distribution was also consolidated into one company. In 1939, the Film Law came into effect, and government interference increased, such as censorship of scripts, film allocations were reduced, and film production declined in both quality and quantity. [Naoki Togawa] Post-World War II boom periodAfter World War II, Japanese cinema made a remarkable recovery. At the time, film and equipment were scarce, and film production faced many challenges, but supported by the thirst of a public starved for entertainment, the industry returned to its prewar scale in just about five years. During the recovery period, production continued despite being subject to censorship by the occupying forces, and powerful works with democratic themes such as Kinoshita Keisuke's "Morning at the Ozone House" (1946), Kurosawa Akira's "No Regrets for My Youth" (1946), and Yamamoto Satsuo and Kamei Fumio's "War and Peace" (1947) attracted attention, but filmmakers soon began to show their own individuality, further increasing the diversity of Japanese cinema. Yamamoto Satsuo and Imai Tadashi, who always pursued social issues, Mizoguchi Kenji, who depicted fateful tragedies, Ozu Yasujiro, who captured the separation of a parent and child in his own style, Naruse Mikio, who pursued the pathos of a woman, and others competed to produce outstanding works with their own unique themes and styles. Among them, Kurosawa Akira and Kinoshita Keisuke, who emerged during World War II, stood out with their fresh styles, and newcomers such as Ichikawa Kon and Shindo Kaneto also appeared. Starting with Rashomon, directed by Akira Kurosawa and starring Toshiro Mifune and Machiko Kyo (1924-2019), which won the Grand Prix at the Venice International Film Festival in 1951, a flood of Japanese films began winning awards overseas. Subsequent awards at the Venice Film Festival included Kenji Mizoguchi's "Saikaku Ichidai Onna" (1952), "The Tale of Moon and Rain" (1953), and "Sansho Dayu" (1954), Akira Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" (1954), Kon Ichikawa's "The Burmese Harp" (1956), Hiroshi Inagaki's "The Life of a Hobbit" (1958), and Masaki Kobayashi's "The Human Condition" (1959-1961). At the Cannes Film Festival in 1954, Kinugasa Teinosuke's "Gate of Hell" (1953) won the Grand Prix, at the Berlin International Film Festival in 1953, Gosho Heinosuke's "Where the Chimneys Are Visible" (1953), and at the Karlovy Vary International Film Festival in 1954, Shindo Kanehito's "Children of the Atomic Bomb" (1952) won the award. The boom in Japanese films winning awards was also due to the fact that period dramas, which had sparked Western curiosity, were generally welcomed by Westerners, including Inagaki Hiroshi's Miyamoto Musashi (1954) which was chosen as the Best Foreign Language Film at the 1955 Academy Awards. However, this eventually spread to modern films such as Ozu Yasujiro's Tokyo Story (1953), Shindo Kanehito's The Naked Island (1960), and Oshima Nagisa's Boy (1970), and the artistic standard of Japanese films began to be highly praised overseas. The prosperity of Japanese films in the 1950s is also reflected in film industry statistics, which show a steady rise towards a peak in 1958. The number of Japanese films produced exceeded 500 per year, and the total number of moviegoers approached 1.2 billion. In addition to Shochiku, Toho, Daiei, and Toei, Nikkatsu resumed production in 1953, and Shintoho, which had split off from Toho, was added, establishing a six-company system. In terms of technology, the era of color films began with Carmen Comes Home (1951), directed by Kinoshita Keisuke and starring Takamine Hideko, using the domestic color system, and Gate of Hell (1953), which used the Eastman system. Widescreens also became widespread, increasing the appeal of films. These developments were in response to the content of the films, and each company developed its own genre of entertainment film that it excelled in, and by adhering to the star system, strengthened its ties with the public. A string of hit films such as Shochiku's "Your Name" (1953-1954), Toho's "Godzilla" (1954), Toei's "The Bride of Ootori Castle" (1957), and Nikkatsu's "The Man Who Called the Storm" (1957) were important in that they stabilized the film companies and gave them the freedom to venture into artistic filmmaking. [Naoki Togawa] Japanese Film in the Television EraHowever, after the 1960s, the film industry gradually fell into difficulty. Changes in the industrial structure throughout Japan led to a concentration of the population in cities, which caused local cinemas to quickly fall into a slump, and the rapid spread of television became a major factor in the decline of moviegoers. The film industry was flooded with double and triple features, which drove a race to mass produce films, and the industry was forced to satisfy quantity rather than quality. As a result, artistic adventures were shunned, and there was an increase in so-called "street films," which were safer versions of hit films that were turned into series, and more provocative depictions of sex and violence gradually escalated. However, amidst this, there were also ambitious attempts by young directors of the Shochiku New Wave, such as Oshima Nagisa, Shinoda Masahiro, and Yoshida Yoshishige, and new directors emerged and produced works that sought to break new ground in Japanese cinema, such as Imamura Shohei's Japanese Insect Chronicles (1963), Teshigahara Hiroshi's Woman in the Dunes (1964), Kobayashi Masaki's Kaidan (1964), Shinoda Masahiro's Shinoda Masahiro's Love Suicides on Amijima (1969), Yamada Yoji's Family (1970), and Kumai Kei's Sandakan Brothel No. 8: Nostalgia (1974). However, television had become widespread and widespread. At the height of the film industry's popularity in 1958 (Showa 33), the number of registered television sets was 1.5 million, accounting for just 5% of all households nationwide. However, this rapidly grew to 8 million in 1960 and 30 million in 1980, accounting for more than 80% of households nationwide. In contrast, the number of movie theaters continued to decline, falling from 7,800 at its peak to fewer than 2,000 by the 1980s, and the number of times that Japanese people went to the movies plummeted from an average of 12 times a year to 1.4 times a year. Needless to say, the film industry suffered a serious blow. The film industry has turned from excessive competition into a process of cutting back on the number of films it produces, and major companies have cut back on their own productions and focused on supplementing distribution with independent productions. As a result, there has been an increase in ambitious films and more opportunities for newcomers to emerge. The list includes veteran directors such as Kanehito Shindo's Takeyama Hitoritabi (1977, Soviet Union Artists' Union Award at the Moscow International Film Festival), Akira Kurosawa's Kagemusha (1980, Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival), Ran (1985), Seijun Suzuki's Zigeunerweisen (1980, Special Jury Award at the Berlin International Film Festival), Kon Ichikawa's Sasameyuki (1983), Shohei Imamura's The Ballad of Narayama (1983, Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival), Nagisa Oshima's Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence (1983), Masahiro Shinoda's Gonza the Spear (1986, Silver Bear Award at the Berlin International Film Festival), Kei Kumai's The Sea and Poison (1986, Silver Bear Award at the Berlin International Film Festival), and Sen no Rikyu (1989). Among the films that have been nominated for this honor are Honkakubo Ibun (1989, Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival) and Yamada Yoji's It's Tough Being a Man series (1969-1997), Higashi Yoichi's The Third (1978), Omori Kazuki's (1952- ) Hippocrates-tachi (1980), Somai Shinji's (1948-2001) Sailor Suit and Machine Gun (1981), and Oguri Kohei's (1945- It is noteworthy that many new directors have produced impressive works that have made it into the top ten lists of Kinema Junpo and other publications, such as Morita Yoshimitsu's (1950-2011) Muddy River (1981, Silver Prize at the Moscow International Film Festival) and The Thorn of Death (1991, Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival), Morita Yoshimitsu's (1950-2011) Family Game (1983), Itami Juzo's The Funeral (1984) and The Taxing Woman (1987), and Negishi Kichitaro's (1950-) Uhohho Tankentai (1986). After that, the government finally started to provide subsidies for film production, and in 1990 (Heisei 2), the Arts and Culture Promotion Fund was established. With a fund of about 60 billion yen, it provided subsidies for all aspects of the arts, and a subsidy system was implemented for films, with 25 million yen for each feature film, for about 10 films per year. Although the number of films and the amount of subsidies subsequently decreased slightly due to falling interest rates, it can be said that this was the first national subsidy system to reach international standards, and conscientious and ambitious works were supported from the planning stage. Nevertheless, Japanese films continue to face a tough situation. In particular, they are being pushed aside by major American entertainment films, and until the 1950s, Japanese films had an overwhelming advantage in terms of distribution revenues between Japanese and foreign films, at 8:2, but this ratio reversed in 1986, and by the 1990s the ratio was 4:6. Foreign films continued to dominate for a while into the 2000s, but from the mid-2000s Japanese films made a comeback, and in 2006 Japanese films surpassed foreign films for the first time in 21 years (Japanese films 53.2%, foreign films 46.8%). In 2007, as sequels to Hollywood blockbusters were released one after the other, foreign films again had a slight lead (Japanese films 47.7%, foreign films 52.3%), but since the following year of 2008, Japanese films have continued to dominate, and as of 2011, Japanese films accounted for 54.9% of the total, while foreign films accounted for 45.1%. [Naoki Togawa] In an age of diversifying video mediaThe popularity of television has almost reached saturation point, and video has followed suit. In 1982, only 10% of households owned a television, but by the 1990s the number of video players had reached the majority, and movie theaters seemed to be in an even more difficult position. The so-called art house theaters, which were conscientious screening locations for older films, gradually faded away and almost disappeared. In contrast, video has become increasingly popular, with annual revenues from rental videos exceeding 300 billion yen. Cinema complexes, which house multiple theaters in the same building, began to appear in the 1990s, and the number of screens increased, reaching 3,412 in 2010, but as of December 2011, the number has slightly decreased to 3,339. One of the notable trends in Japanese cinema since the 1980s is the rise of animation. In the past, film adaptations of TV cartoons and children's magazine comics were the norm, but eventually original feature films became more popular and became box office hits. These films, which were produced and directed mainly by Miyazaki Hayao and Takahata Isao (1935-2018), such as Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984), Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986), My Neighbor Totoro (1988), Kiki's Delivery Service (1989), Princess Mononoke (1997), and Spirited Away (2001, Golden Bear Award at the Berlin International Film Festival and Academy Award for Best Animated Feature), were original in their ideas, drawings, story development, and technical processing, and won support from a wide audience. The stable success of feature-length animated films continued thereafter, and in 2001 statistics showed that distribution revenues from animated films peaked at more than 50% of total distribution revenues from Japanese films, but in 2011, due to a resurgence in popularity of Japanese films, this figure was down to around 28%. In response to the rise of anime, the form of independent production by film companies has changed significantly. Film studios have stopped mass-producing films, limiting themselves to a minimum of independent production, and have begun to incorporate works from independent producers into their distribution programs. Film studios, which were the basis of mass-producing films, no longer have a need for them, so the closure and sale of Shochiku's Ofuna Film Studio is a natural progression. Since moving from Kamata to Ofuna in 1936, Ofuna Film Studio has produced many masterpieces, but in June 2000, it closed its doors after 64 years of history, finishing filming director Yamada Yoji's "15-Year-Old School IV." What is needed for film production in the future is not a large stage or a large open set, but a space equipped with facilities and equipment that are effective for post-production (compositing, etc.), and Shochiku's new film studio in Tokyo will no doubt prove this fact. Since the 1990s, there has been a rapid increase in independent productions, as if to make up for the cutbacks made by major film companies. This was reflected in the best ten lists of films such as Kinema Junpo, and many new directors have appeared and attracted attention. Among them, Masayuki Suo (1956-) has made films such as Suko Funjatta (1991) and Shall we Dance? (1995), Sai Yoichi (1949- ) with Which Way is the Moon Rising? (1993) and Marx's Mountain (1995), and Kitano Takeshi with Violent Cop (1989), Kids Return (1996), Hana-bi (1997, Venice International Film Festival Grand Prix), Kikujiro's Summer (1999) and Zatōichi (2003, Venice International Film Festival Best Director Award), all of which showed fresh storytelling styles and descriptive abilities. Other notable names include Iwai Shunji, known for films such as Love Letter (1995) and All About Lily Chou-Chou (2001); Koreeda Hirokazu (1962-), known for films such as Phantom Light (1995, winner of the Golden Osella Award at the Venice Film Festival and Nobody Knows (2004); Kawase Naomi (1969-), known for films such as Moe no Suzaku (1997, Camera d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival) and Magari no Mori (2007, Grand Prix at the Cannes Film Festival); Sakamoto Junji (1958-), known for films such as The Face (1999); and Mitani Koki (1961-), known for films such as Radio Time (1997, Don Quixote Award at the Berlin International Film Festival). ), Isomura Itsumichi (1950-) of films such as "Ganbatte Ikimasshoi" (1998), Hirayama Hideyuki (1950-) of films such as "A Begging for Love" (1998), Aoyama Shinji (1964-) of films such as "EUREKA" (2000, FIPRESCI Prize at the Cannes Film Festival), Yukisada Isao (1968-) of films such as "GO" (2001) and "Year Zero in the North" (2005), Inudo Isshin (1960-) of films such as "Josee, the Tiger and the Fish" (2003), and Yamazaki Takashi (1964-) of "Always: Sunset on Third Street" (2005). The new cast is diverse, including Lee Sang-il (1974-) from "Flower and Song" (2006), and Okuda Eiji (1950-) from "A Long Walk" (2006, Grand Prix at the Montreal International Film Festival). While new directors were emerging, veteran directors were also active at their own pace. Kanehito Shindo's Afternoon Testament (1995, Moscow International Film Festival Russian Film Critics Jury Prize), I Want to Live (1999, Moscow Film Festival Grand Prix), Shohei Imamura's The Eel (1997, Cannes Film Festival Grand Prize), Kinji Fukasaku's Chushingura Gaiden: Yotsuya Kaidan (1994) and Battle Royale (2000), Masahiro Shinoda's Boyhood (1990) and Spy Sorge (2000) were also successful. 3), Ichikawa Kon's "Dora Heita" (2000, Special Achievement Award at the Berlin International Film Festival), "Mother" (2001), Kumai Kei's "Japan's Black Summer: False Accusation" (2001, Special Achievement Award at the Berlin International Film Festival), Yamada Yoji's "School" series (1993-2000), "The Twilight Samurai" (2002), and Kurosawa Kiyoshi's "Kaido" (2000, FIPRESCI Prize at the Cannes Film Festival). However, in the 1990s, Kurosawa Akira, Kinoshita Keisuke, Kobayashi Masaki, and Itami Juzo passed away one after another, and in the 2000s, Somai Shinji, Fukasaku Kinji, Nomura Yoshitaro, Imamura Shohei, Kuroki Kazuo, Kumai Kei, and Ichikawa Kon also passed away in 2012 at the age of 100, after his last film was "Postcard" (2010). Many talented and unique actors have passed away, including Atsumi Kiyoshi, Mifune Toshiro, Kishida Kyoko (1930-2006), and Morishige Hisaya (1913-2009). [Naoki Togawa] Kuroki Kazuo, who was noted for his bold experimental style in his youth, produced a series of masterpieces that showed his maturity in the 21st century. All of these works recall the final days of the war and appeal for anti-war support: "Beautiful Summer Kirishima" (2002), "Living with My Father" (2004), and "Youth of Kamiya Etsuko" (2006). Lee Sang-il's "Blue Chong" (2000) was his graduation project from the Japan Institute of the Moving Image, but it was a groundbreaking work of self-assertion for Koreans living in Japan. Lee Sang-il's debut with this film soon led to young film directors with "Hula Girls" (2006) and "Villain" (2010). Sai Yoichi's "Blood and Bones" (2004) is a retrospective of the terrible lives of Koreans living in Japan. Genjiro Arato's (1946-2016) Akame Shijuuhachitaki Shinju Misui (Attempted Double Suicide at Akame Shijuuhachitaki) (2003), Hirokazu Koreeda's Nobody Knows (2004), and Akira Ogata's (1959- ) Someday I'll Read (2004) are all excellent works that vividly capture aspects of modern Japan from their own unique perspectives. Yojiro Takita's (1955- ) Departures (2008) carefully depicts the work of beautifully staging a funeral, and won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film that year. Koji Wakamatsu's (1936-2012) Road to Asama-Sanso (2008) is a powerful work that meticulously explores the United Red Army incident. Yamada Yoji's "Kabee" (2007) is the true story of a family who lived with anti-war sentiment during the war, and is a valuable family drama with a unique story. Kimura Daisaku's (1939- ) "Tsurugidake Ten no Ki" (Record of the Tempest of Swords) (2008) is the true story of the people who first reached the summit of Mount Tsurugidake during the Meiji period, and its merit lies in the fact that cinematographer Kimura Daisaku used his full cinematic skills to tackle the mountain. Also, the number of female directors, which had been very few for many years, has rapidly increased since the 1990s. Representative examples include Ogigami Naoko (1972- ), who directed "Kamome Diner" (2005) and "Toilet" (2010), and Nishikawa Miwa (1974- ), who directed "Sway" (2006). These women have certainly broadened our perspective on Japanese life. A notable phenomenon in film production in recent years is the ongoing polarization of blockbusters and low-budget films. Blockbusters are made through the joint investment of several companies, including commercial television stations, film companies, publishers, and trading companies, and the finished films are released through major distribution networks led by Toho. Although they have ample budgets and can afford lavish casts, they have to recoup their investment with each film, so the pressure to be commercially successful is great and the content tends to be mundane. On the other hand, low-budget films tend to be too poor because they can only be screened in mini-theaters with around 100 seats. The conflict between commercialism and filmmakers who seek to pursue artistic and social qualities has been a phenomenon seen throughout the history of film, but since the Heisei era began, the trend has been toward a polarization of films distributed through major distribution networks centered on multiplexes and independent films such as mini-theaters. However, there are good films in each category, and I hope to see further progress. [Tadao Sato] "Iijima Masaru's History of Japanese Films" (1955, Hakusuisha)" ▽ "Tenichiro Tanaka's History of Japanese Films" (1957-1980, Chuokoronsha)" ▽ "Iwasaki Masaru, "An American History of Modern Japanese History: Film History" (1961, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)" ▽ "Ten Tadao, "Contemporary Japanese Films" (1969-1979, Hyoronsha)" ▽ "Ten Tadao, "Contemporary Japanese Films" (1971-1972, Fuyukisha)" ▽ "Imamura Shohei, et al., "Lecture Japanese Films" (1985-1988, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Japanese Films and Japanese Culture" (1987, Miraisha)" ▽ "Japanese Films Dictionary: Actress Edition" (1995, Kinema Junposha)" ▽ "The Dictionary of Japanese Films: Actors Edition" (1996, Kinema Junposha)" ▽ "Sato Tadao, "The Masters of Japanese Films 1-3" (1996-1997, Gakuyo Shobo)" ▽ "Yamada Kazuo, "101 Years of Japanese Films: Challenge to the Future" (1997, Shinnihon Publishing)" ▽ "The Dictionary of Japanese Films and Directors Edition" (1997, Kinema Junposha)" ▽ "The Dictionary of Japanese Cultural History Series, Edited by Iwamoto Kenji, "The History of Japanese Cinemas: Photography and Painting Collection" 3 volumes (1998, Nippon Book Center)" ▽ "Maruyama Kazuaki, "The Transformation of Japanese Films with the World Attention" (1998, Soshisha)" ▽ "Murakami Seiaki and Ogawa Norifumi, "The Frontline of the Japanese Film Industry" (1999, Kadokawa Shoten)" ▽ "New Wave of Japanese Films - Beyond the Reality" (2000, Esquire Magazine Japan)" ▽ "Takhisa Furukawa, "Japanese Films in Wartime - Have People Seen National Policy Films? (2003, Yoshikawa Kobunkan) " ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 1 Japanese Film and Nationalism 1931-1945" (2004, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 2 Films and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" (2004, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 3 Alternatives of Visual Expression - Deviation and Creation in the 1960s" (2005, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 4 Period Drama Legends - The Brilliance of Chambara Films" (2005, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 4 Period Drama Legends - The Brilliance of Chambara Films" (2005, Morisansha)" ▽ "Made by Murayama Masaichiro, "Japanese Film History Series 5: Film Records the World - Documentary Rethinking" (2006, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Saito Ayako, "Japanese Film History Series 6: Film and Body/Sex" (2006, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Sato Tadao, "Japanese Film History Series 7: Family Portraits - Home Dramas and Melodramas" (2007, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Iwamoto Kenji, "Japanese Film History Series 7: Founders of Japanese Film" (2007, Nichigai Associates, Kinokuniya Bookstore)" ▽ "Made by Uchiyama Kazuki, "Japanese Film History Series 8: The Circuits to Fantasy and Fantasy - From Ghost Stories to J-Horror" (2008, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Iwamoto Kenji, "Japanese Film History Series 9: Japanese Film History Series 8: The Circuits to Fantasy and Fantasy - From Ghost Stories to J-Horror" (2008, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Iwamoto Kenji, "Japanese Film History Series 9: Japanese Film History Series 8: The Circuits to Fantasy and Fantasy - From Ghost Stories to J-Horror" (2008, Moritanisha)" ▽ "Made by Iwamoto Kenji, "Japanese Film History Series 9: Japanese Film History Series 9: "The Emperor in Films - Forbidden Portraits" (2007, Morisansha)" ▽ "Okumura Ken's "Japanese Film History Series 10: Film and Wars - Desire to Shoot/Desire to See" (2009, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 11: Films under Occupation - Liberation and Censorship" (2009, Morisansha)" ▽ "Toeda Yuichi, "Japanese Film History Series 12: Cross-section Films and Literature" (2011, Morisansha)" ▽ "Kamiyama Akira and Kodama Ryuichi, "Japanese Film History Series 13: Classical Entertainment in Films" (2010, Morisansha)" ▽ "Fujiki Hideaki, "Japanese Film History Series 14: Approach to Audiences" (2011, Morisansha)" ▽ "Japanese Film History Series 15: The Birth of Japanese Films" (2011, Morisansha)" ▽ "Iwamoto Kenji, "Japanese Film History Series 15: The Birth of Japanese Films" (2011, Morisansha)" ▽ "Kurosawa Kiyoshi, Yoshimi Toshiya, Shikata Inuhiko, and Li Fengyu, "Japanese Cinemas Are Living," edited by: Kurosawa Kiyoshi, Yoshimi Inuhiko, and Li Fengyu," 8 volumes (2010-2011, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Kato Mikio, "Theory of Japanese Films 1933-2007 - Text and Context" (2011, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Pia Cinema Club Japanese Film Edition" each year edition (Pia)" ▽ "Tenichiro Tanaka's History of Japanese Films" 5 volumes, definitive edition (Chuko Bunko)" ▽ "100 Years of Japanese Film History" by: Shikata Inuhiko (Shueisha Shinsho)" [Reference items] | | | | | | Inagaki Hiro | | Imamura | | | | | | | | | Kyomasa | Kamei | | | | | | | | | Saito Torajiro | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Yasushi| | | | | | | | | |Murata Minori| | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
19世紀末に、アメリカ、フランスで発明公開された映画は、1、2年のうちに日本に伝えられ、製作も始められた。以来100年を超える歴史を刻んだ日本映画は、つねに大衆の娯楽として親しまれ、ときには優れた芸術作品として人々の感動をよんできた。日本映画の市場はほとんど国内に限定されてきたが、芸術面でも文化の反映としても海外から高い関心が寄せられている。1960年代からはテレビの普及に娯楽の王座を譲った形だが、若い世代を中心に独自のファン層をもち、テレビとともに映像文化の中核をなしている。 [登川直樹] サイレント映画時代19世紀末、アメリカのエジソンが発明したキネトスコープは1896年(明治29)に、またフランスのリュミエール兄弟が発明したシネマトグラフは翌1897年に日本に輸入され、「活動写真」の名で公開されたが、やがて国内でも製作されるようになり、「銀座街」「浅草仲見世(なかみせ)」などの風景実写のほか、『紅葉狩(もみじがり)』のように舞台の芸を書割を吊(つ)るした野外で歌舞伎(かぶき)俳優が演じたものもつくられた。 映画の初期には、諸外国と同じく日本でも実写フィルムと寸劇風の短編劇映画を数本あわせて一番組として興行するのが普通だったが、しだいに実写は消えて劇映画も長編に変わっていった。ただ日本では最初から上映中にスクリーンの横で台詞(せりふ)を語り情景の説明を行う弁士(活動写真の弁士、略して活弁、のちに説明者とよばれる)がつく習慣で、これがサイレント映画(無声映画)を通して行われた。そのうえに初期の日本映画では女方(おんながた)が当然のように用いられ、大正後半になってようやく女優が普通に使われるようになった。 1912年(大正1)には横田商会など4社が合併し、日本活動写真株式会社(日活)が創設され、牧野省三(しょうぞう)による尾上松之助(おのえまつのすけ)主演の旧劇(時代劇)映画が京都の撮影所で、女方を使った新派映画が東京の向島(むこうじま)撮影所で盛んにつくられた。これらはいまから考えれば荒唐無稽(こうとうむけい)で安易なものであったが、それにもかかわらず活動写真は目覚ましく普及して、たちまち大衆の娯楽として広まった。それは、当時の芝居に比べてはるかに手軽な入場料と、地方にも続々と増えた映画常設館によって全国に行き渡ったばかりでなく、その内容が、動く写真のもの珍しさのうえに、弁士の説明に助けられたわかりやすさ、映像の魔術的な魅力、スターの人気などが一体となって、新しい娯楽として人々の強い関心を集めたからである。 しかし日本映画が独自の表現技術を備えるのはサイレント中期の1918年ごろからである。そのころから映画人のなかに、映画を舞台劇の模倣でなく映画固有のスタイルをもったものにしようという運動が広まっていき、純映画劇とよばれた帰山教正(かえりやまのりまさ)の『生の輝き』や『深山(みやま)の乙女(おとめ)』(ともに1918)、枝正義郎(えだまさよしろう)(1888―1944)の『哀(かなしみ)の曲』(1919)などが生まれた。続いて栗原(くりはら)トーマス(1885―1926)監督・谷崎潤一郎(じゅんいちろう)脚本の『アマチュア倶楽部(くらぶ)』(1920)、小山内薫(おさないかおる)総指揮・村田実(みのる)監督・牛原虚彦(きよひこ)(1897―1985)脚本らによる『路上の霊魂』(1921)などが新しい試みで注目された。 しかし本格的な芸術映画の隆盛はサイレント末期の1920年代後半(大正末から昭和初期)にやってきた。時代劇では活気のある立回りシーンをもったチャンバラ映画が流行したなかで、主人公の世をすねたような生き方にニヒルな雰囲気を漂わせる力作が、阪東妻三郎(ばんどうつまさぶろう)主演・二川文太郎(ふたかわぶんたろう)(1899―1966)監督の『雄呂血(おろち)』(1925)、大河内伝次郎(おおこうちでんじろう)主演・伊藤大輔(だいすけ)監督の『忠次(ちゅうじ)旅日記』三部作(1927)など相次いだ。現代劇では新派の流れをくむ悲劇のほか叙情映画やメロドラマが大勢を占めるなかで、それに自然描写を溶け込ませた五所平之助(ごしょへいのすけ)の『村の花嫁』(1928)や、庶民の生活の悲哀を描いた小津安二郎(おづやすじろう)の『大学は出たけれど』(1929)など個性的な作風をもつ新鮮な映画が競ってつくられた。また社会批判的な主張をもったいわゆる「傾向映画」が時代劇・現代劇を問わず生まれたが、これらは当時の経済的、社会的に不安な状況に対する反応でもあった。こうしたサイレント末期の映画の隆盛を招いたのは、日活、松竹をはじめとする製作会社の安定、さらに阪東妻三郎、片岡千恵蔵(ちえぞう)、嵐寛寿郎(あらしかんじゅうろう)、市川右太衛門(うたえもん)らの俳優が中心となった独立プロ(独立プロダクション)の活況によるもので、大衆の支持を得ながら映画は経済的にも基盤を強化しつつあったといえる。娯楽映画がますます大衆のなかに浸透していくと同時に、たとえば衣笠貞之助(きぬがさていのすけ)の『狂った一頁(ページ)』(1926)のように思いきった実験映画もつくられて、日本映画全体が大きく枠を広げつつあった。 [登川直樹] トーキー開始以後日本で最初の本格的なトーキー映画(発声映画)は、1931年(昭和6)五所平之助監督、田中絹代主演の『マダムと女房』であるが、数年間はサイレントとトーキーは並行してつくられた。1930年代なかば以降の本格的なトーキー時代に入ると、文学作品の映画化によって日本映画の内容は一段と豊かになった。島津保次郎(やすじろう)の『お琴(こと)と佐助(さすけ)』(1935)、内田吐夢(とむ)の『人生劇場』(1936)、伊丹万作(いたみまんさく)の『赤西蠣太(あかにしかきた)』(1936)、田坂具隆(ともたか)の『路傍の石』(1938)、豊田四郎(とよだしろう)の『若い人』(1937)などの文芸映画が生まれた。また衣笠貞之助の『雪之丞変化(ゆきのじょうへんげ)』三部作(1935~1936)が林長二郎(後の長谷川一夫(はせがわかずお))主演により娯楽時代劇として大ヒットした。一方では原作に依存しないオリジナル脚本による映画も活発につくられ、溝口健二(みぞぐちけんじ)監督、山田五十鈴(いすず)主演の『浪華悲歌(なにわエレジー)』『祇園(ぎおん)の姉妹(きょうだい)』(ともに1936)、小津安二郎の『一人息子』(1936)、内田吐夢の『限りなき前進』(1937)、山中貞雄(さだお)の『人情紙風船』(1937)などの力作が生まれた。 1931年満州事変が勃発(ぼっぱつ)して以来軍国主義的な色彩が強まるにつれて、『五人の斥候兵(せっこうへい)』(1938)のような戦争映画から『馬』(1941)のような農家が軍馬を育てる物語にまで、多くの映画にそれが反映し、1941年の太平洋戦争勃発によってさらにその傾向は強まった。『ハワイ・マレー沖海戦』(1942)、『加藤隼(はやぶさ)戦闘隊』(1944)、『あの旗を撃て』(1944)などの、いわゆる戦意昂揚(こうよう)映画が次々とつくられた。なかで稲垣浩(いながきひろし)の『無法松の一生』(1943)は、戦争とは無縁な世界を扱ったヒューマニズムを謳歌(おうか)した秀作として注目された。 トーキー時代に入って以来、膨張した製作費などのため俳優や監督の独立プロは姿を消し、撮影所をもつ大手の会社による量産体制が確立していたが、戦時中の企業統制によって映画会社も松竹、東宝、および日活をはじめとする他社を合併した大映の3社に整理統合され、配給事業も一社にまとめられた。1939年には映画法が施行されて脚本の検閲など政府の干渉は強まり、フィルムの割当ても減少し、映画製作は質量ともに低下していった。 [登川直樹] 第二次世界大戦後の隆盛期第二次世界大戦後、日本映画の復興は目覚ましかった。当座はフィルムも機材も乏しく、映画製作には難問が山積していたが、娯楽に飢えていた大衆の渇望に支えられて、わずか5年ほどで戦前の産業規模に立ち直った。占領軍の検閲を受けながら製作を続けた復興期は、木下恵介(けいすけ)の『大曽根(おおそね)家の朝(あした)』(1946)、黒澤明の『わが青春に悔なし』(1946)、山本薩夫(さつお)・亀井文夫(かめいふみお)の『戦争と平和』(1947)など、いわば民主主義的テーマをかざした力作が注目を浴びたが、やがて映画作家たちはそれぞれの個性を発揮する方向に伸びて日本映画の多様性が一段と増した。つねに社会的問題を追求した山本薩夫、今井正(ただし)、運命的な悲劇を描いた溝口健二、親子の別れを独自のスタイルでとらえた小津安二郎、女の哀れを追った成瀬巳喜男(なるせみきお)などそれぞれに個性的な題材や様式で秀作を競った。なかでも第二次世界大戦中に登場した黒澤明と木下恵介は新鮮な作風で異彩を放ち、市川崑(こん)、新藤兼人(かねと)らの新人も登場した。 1951年(昭和26)にベネチア国際映画祭で、監督黒澤明、主演三船敏郎(みふねとしろう)・京マチ子(1924―2019)の『羅生門(らしょうもん)』がグランプリを受賞したのを皮切りに、日本映画の海外受賞は堰(せき)を切ったように相次いだ。その後もベネチアでは溝口健二の『西鶴一代女(さいかくいちだいおんな)』(1952)、『雨月物語(うげつものがたり)』(1953)、『山椒大夫(さんしょうだゆう)』(1954)、黒澤明の『七人の侍』(1954)、市川崑の『ビルマの竪琴(たてごと)』(1956)、稲垣浩の『無法松の一生』(1958)、小林正樹(まさき)の『人間の條件(じょうけん)』(1959~1961)と受賞が続いた。カンヌ国際映画祭では1954年に衣笠貞之助の『地獄門』(1953)がグランプリを獲得、ベルリン国際映画祭では1953年に五所平之助の『煙突の見える場所』(1953)、1959年に黒澤明の『隠し砦(とりで)の三悪人』(1958)、カルロビ・バリ国際映画祭では1954年に新藤兼人の『原爆の子』(1952)が受賞した。1955年アメリカのアカデミー賞の最優秀外国映画に稲垣浩の『宮本武蔵(むさし)』(1954)が選ばれたのも加えて、日本映画の受賞ブームは概して時代劇が欧米人の好奇心に迎えられたことにもよるが、やがて小津安二郎の『東京物語』(1953)、新藤兼人の『裸の島』(1960)、大島渚(なぎさ)の『少年』(1970)など現代劇にも及んで、日本映画の芸術的水準が海外から高く評価されるようになった。 こうした1950年代の日本映画の隆盛は映画産業統計にも表れていて、1958年のピークに向かって上昇の一途をたどったことがわかる。日本映画の製作本数は年間500本を超え、映画観客は延べ12億人に迫った。映画会社は松竹、東宝、大映、東映に加えて日活が1953年に製作を再開、東宝から分かれた新東宝も加えると6社の態勢が確立した。技術的には、木下恵介監督、高峰秀子主演の『カルメン故郷に帰る』(1951)で国産方式の色彩映画がつくられ、『地獄門』(1953)でイーストマン方式が採用されるなどカラー映画の時代に踏み出し、またワイド・スクリーンも普及するなどして映画の魅力を高めた。これらは映画の内容とも呼応するもので、各社それぞれに得意とする娯楽映画のジャンルを開拓し、スター・システムを堅持して大衆との結び付きを強めた。松竹の『君の名は』(1953~1954)、東宝の『ゴジラ』(1954)、東映の『鳳(おおとり)城の花嫁』(1957)、日活の『嵐(あらし)を呼ぶ男』(1957)などに代表されるヒット映画の連作は映画企業を安定させ、その余裕のもとで芸術的な映画製作の冒険ができた意味でも重要であった。 [登川直樹] テレビ時代の日本映画しかし1960年を過ぎると、映画界はしだいに困難な状況に入っていった。日本全体の産業構造の変化によって人口が都市に集中し、地方の映画興行はたちまち不振に陥り、テレビの急速な普及は映画観客を減らす大きな要因となった。映画界は2本立て、3本立ての氾濫(はんらん)で量産競争に駆り立てられ、質よりも量を満たすことに追われた。そのため芸術的な冒険は退けられ、より安全な、ヒット映画をシリーズ化したいわゆる路線映画が増え、より刺激的な性や暴力の表現がしだいにエスカレートした。 しかし、そうしたなかでも、大島渚、篠田正浩(しのだまさひろ)、吉田喜重(よししげ)ら松竹ヌーベル・バーグの若手の意欲的な試みもあり、今村昌平(しょうへい)の『にっぽん昆虫記』(1963)、勅使河原宏(てしがわらひろし)の『砂の女』(1964)、小林正樹の『怪談』(1964)、篠田正浩の『心中天網島(てんのあみじま)』(1969)、山田洋次の『家族』(1970)、熊井啓(くまいけい)の『サンダカン八番娼館(しょうかん)・望郷』(1974)など、新人監督も台頭して日本映画の新しい分野を開こうとする作品が生まれた。 しかしテレビの普及浸透は徹底的であった。映画最盛期の1958年(昭和33)にテレビ受像機の登録台数は150万台で、全国世帯中わずか5%の普及にすぎなかったが、1960年には800万台、1980年には3000万台と急速に伸びて、全国家庭の80%以上に達した。これに逆行して映画館は減少の一途をたどり、最盛期の7800館から1980年代に2000館以下に減り、日本人の映画観覧回数も1人平均年12回から年1.4回に激減した。映画産業が深刻な打撃を受けたことはいうまでもない。 映画製作は過当競争から一転して製作本数の切り詰めにかかり、大手各社は自主製作を減らして独立プロ作品の補充配給に力を入れた。その結果、野心的な作品が増え、新人が登場する機会も増えた。ベテラン監督である新藤兼人の『竹山ひとり旅』(1977、モスクワ国際映画祭ソ連美術家同盟賞)、黒澤明の『影武者』(1980、カンヌ国際映画祭グランプリ)、『乱』(1985)、鈴木清順の『ツィゴイネルワイゼン』(1980、ベルリン国際映画祭審査員特別表彰)、市川崑の『細雪(ささめゆき)』(1983)をはじめ、今村昌平の『楢山節考(ならやまぶしこう)』(1983、カンヌ国際映画祭グランプリ)、大島渚の『戦場のメリークリスマス』(1983)、篠田正浩の『槍(やり)の権三(ごんざ)』(1986、ベルリン国際映画祭銀熊賞)、熊井啓の『海と毒薬』(1986、ベルリン国際映画祭銀熊賞)、『千利休(せんのりきゅう) 本覺坊遺文(ほんがくぼういぶん)』(1989、ベネチア国際映画祭銀獅子賞)、山田洋次の『男はつらいよ』シリーズ(1969~1997)に混じって、東(ひがし)陽一の『サード』(1978)、大森一樹(かずき)(1952― )の『ヒポクラテスたち』(1980)、相米慎二(そうまいしんじ)(1948―2001)の『セーラー服と機関銃』(1981)、小栗康平(おぐりこうへい)(1945― )の『泥の河』(1981、モスクワ国際映画祭銀賞)、『死の棘(とげ)』(1991、カンヌ国際映画祭グランプリ)、森田芳光(よしみつ)(1950―2011)の『家族ゲーム』(1983)、伊丹十三の『お葬式』(1984)、『マルサの女』(1987)、根岸吉太郎(1950― )の『ウホッホ探検隊』(1986)など、多数の新人監督がキネマ旬報などのベストテン上位に力作佳作を放ったのは注目される。 その後、国の映画製作助成もようやく実現し、1990年(平成2)、芸術文化振興基金が創設された。約600億円を基金に芸術各般に補助金を交付するもので、映画にも長編劇映画1本に2500万円、年間約10本などの補助金を交付する制度が実施された。その後の金利低下などで補助する作品数や補助金額がやや減少したが、国からの助成制度としては初めて国際的水準に達したといってよく、良心作や野心作が企画の段階で支援を受けている。 それでも日本映画はなお厳しい状況のもとにある。なかでもアメリカ映画の娯楽大作に押されぎみなのは深刻で、かつて1950年代まで邦画と洋画の配給収入比は8対2と日本映画が断然優位にたっていたが、その比率が1986年には逆転し、1990年代には邦画と洋画の比率は4対6となった。2000年代に入っても洋画優位の状況はしばらく続いていたが、2000年代中ごろから邦画が盛り返し、2006年には21年ぶりに邦画が洋画を上回った(邦画53.2%、洋画46.8%)。2007年にはハリウッド娯楽大作の続編が相次いで封切られたため、ふたたび洋画が僅差ではあるが優位にたった(邦画47.7%、洋画52.3%)が、翌2008年からは邦画の優位が続いており、2011年時点で、邦画54.9%、洋画45.1%である。 [登川直樹] 多様化する映像メディアの時代テレビの普及はほとんど飽和状態に達したが、ビデオの普及もこれを追っている。1982年(昭和57)にテレビを所有する家庭のわずか10%にすぎなかったビデオ機の普及は1990年代に入って過半数に達し、映画館はさらに窮地に追い詰められた観がある。いわゆる名画座は良心的な旧作の上映拠点であったが、しだいに立ち消えてほとんど姿を消した。これと対照的にビデオはますます活況を呈し、とくにレンタル・ビデオの収益は年間3000億円を超える。映画館も1990年代に入って同一建物に複数館を収めたシネコン(シネマ・コンプレックス=複合型映画館)が出現し、スクリーン数も増加して2010年(平成22)には3412となったが、2011年12月時点では3339と、やや減少している。 1980年代以降の日本映画の注目すべき動向の一つはアニメーション映画の隆盛であろう。かつてはテレビ漫画や子供向け雑誌漫画の映画化が主であったが、やがてオリジナルの長編映画が活発になり興行的にもヒットした。『風の谷のナウシカ』(1984)、『天空の城ラピュタ』(1986)、『となりのトトロ』(1988)、『魔女の宅急便』(1989)、『もののけ姫』(1997)、『千と千尋(ちひろ)の神隠し』(2001、ベルリン国際映画祭金熊賞、アカデミー長編アニメーション映画賞)など、もっぱら宮崎駿、高畑勲(たかはたいさお)(1935―2018)らの製作監督になるこれらの作品は、着想、作画、物語展開、技術処理などに独創性を発揮して広い客層の支持を得た。長編アニメの安定したヒットはその後も続き、2001年の統計では、アニメ映画の配給収入が日本映画の配給収入全額の50%を超えてピークであったが、2011年では、邦画の復権もあり28%程度となっている。 こうしたアニメの隆盛に呼応するように、映画会社の自主製作の形態は大きく変わってきた。撮影所は量産体制をやめて最小限度の自主製作にとどめ、独立プロの作品を取り込んで配給番組を編成するようになった。量産体制の基盤であった撮影所はその必要性を失ったわけで、松竹大船撮影所の閉鎖売却は自然の成り行きともいえる。1936年蒲田(かまた)から大船に移転して以来、数々の名作を世に送ってきた大船撮影所は2000年6月、山田洋次監督の『十五才・学校Ⅳ』の撮影終了を最後に64年の歴史を閉じた。これからの映画製作に必要なものは、大きなステージや広いオープン・セットの敷地ではなく、撮影後のポスト・プロ(合成作業など)に威力を発揮する設備機材を備えた空間で、松竹が都内に設置した新撮影所もその事実を証明するにちがいない。 1990年代以降、大手映画会社の自主製作切り詰めを埋め合わせるように、独立プロ作品が急増した。キネマ旬報などのベストテンにもそれが反映して、多くの新人監督が登場し注目された。なかでも周防正行(すおまさゆき)(1956― )は『シコふんじゃった』(1991)、『Shall we ダンス?』(1995)を放ち、崔洋一(さいよういち)(1949― )は『月はどっちに出ている』(1993)、『マークスの山』(1995)を、北野武は『その男、狂暴につき』(1989)、『キッズ・リターン』(1996)、『HANA‐BI』(1997、ベネチア国際映画祭グランプリ)、『菊次郎の夏』(1999)、『座頭市』(2003、ベネチア国際映画祭監督賞)などで、いずれも新鮮な話術や描写力をみせた。さらに『Love Letter』(1995)、『リリイ・シュシュのすべて』(2001)などの岩井俊二、『幻の光』(1995、ベネチア国際映画祭金のオゼッラ賞等)、『誰も知らない』(2004)などの是枝裕和(これえだひろかず)(1962― )、『萌(もえ)の朱雀(すざく)』(1997、カンヌ国際映画祭カメラドール)、『殯(もがり)の森』(2007、カンヌ国際映画祭グランプリ)などの河瀬直美(1969― )、『顔』(1999)などの阪本順治(1958― )、『ラヂオの時間』(1997、ベルリン国際映画祭国際映画団体連盟ドン・キホーテ賞)などの三谷幸喜(みたにこうき)(1961― )、『がんばっていきまっしょい』(1998)などの磯村一路(いつみち)(1950― )、『愛を乞(こ)うひと』(1998)などの平山秀幸(1950― )、『EUREKA(ユリイカ)』(2000、カンヌ国際映画祭国際批評家連盟賞)などの青山真治(1964― )、『GO』(2001)、『北の零(ぜろ)年』(2005)などの行定勲(ゆきさだいさお)(1968― )、『ジョゼと虎と魚たち』(2003)などの犬童一心(いぬどういっしん)(1960― )、『ALWAYS 三丁目の夕日』(2005)の山崎貴(たかし)(1964― )、『フラガール』(2006)の李相日(リサンイル)(1974― )、『長い散歩』(2006、モントリオール国際映画祭グランプリ)の奥田瑛二(1950― )とあげれば新しい顔ぶれは多彩である。 新人監督輩出の一方、ベテラン監督もマイペースで活躍した。新藤兼人の『午後の遺言状』(1995、モスクワ国際映画祭ロシア映画批評家審査員賞)、『生きたい』(1999、モスクワ映画祭グランプリ)、今村昌平の『うなぎ』(1997、カンヌ国際映画祭最高賞)、深作欣二の『忠臣蔵外伝・四谷怪談』(1994)、『バトル・ロワイアル』(2000)、篠田正浩の『少年時代』(1990)、『スパイ・ゾルゲ』(2003)、市川崑の『どら平太』(2000、ベルリン国際映画祭特別功労賞)、『かあちゃん』(2001)、熊井啓の『日本の黒い夏・冤罪(えんざい)』(2001、ベルリン国際映画祭特別功労賞)、山田洋次の『学校』シリーズ(1993~2000)、『たそがれ清兵衛』(2002)、黒沢清の『回路』(2000、カンヌ国際映画祭国際批評家連盟賞)などである。とはいえ、1990年代には黒澤明、木下恵介、小林正樹、伊丹十三、2000年代に入ると相米慎二、深作欣二、野村芳太郎、今村昌平、黒木和雄、熊井啓、市川崑が相次いで他界。新藤兼人も『一枚のハガキ』(2010)を最後に2012年、100歳で亡くなった。また俳優では渥美清(あつみきよし)、三船敏郎、岸田今日子(1930―2006)、森繁久彌(1913―2009)など多くの個性派人材がこの世を去った。 [登川直樹] 若いころに大胆な実験的作風で注目された黒木和雄は、21世紀になると円熟の境地を示す秀作を連作した。いずれも戦争の末期を回想して反戦を訴える『美しい夏キリシマ』(2002)、『父と暮せば』(2004)、『紙屋悦子(かみやえつこ)の青春』(2006)である。李相日の『青 chong(ちょん)』(2000)は日本映画学校の卒業制作作品であるが、在日韓国・朝鮮人の自己主張の作品として画期的であり、これでデビューした李相日はやがて『フラ・ガール』(2006)、『悪人』(2010)などで若手の映画監督の先頭にたつ。崔洋一の『血と骨』(2004)は在日韓国人のすさまじい生き方の回顧である。荒戸源次郎(あらとげんじろう)(1946―2016)の『赤目四十八瀧(あかめしじゅうはちたき)心中未遂』(2003)、是枝裕和の『誰も知らない』(2004)、緒方明(おがたあきら)(1959― )の『いつか読書する日』(2004)は、いずれも現代の日本の一面を独自の視点で鮮かに切りとった佳作である。滝田洋二郎(たきたようじろう)(1955― )の『おくりびと』(2008)は葬式を美しく演出する仕事をていねいに描いて、この年のアメリカのアカデミー外国語映画賞を受賞した。若松孝二(わかまつこうじ)(1936―2012)の『あさま山荘への道程』(2008)は、連合赤軍事件を克明に追求した力作である。山田洋次の『母べえ』(2007)は戦争中に反戦思想をもって生きた家族の実話であり、ありそうでなかった貴重な内容のホームドラマである。木村大作(きむらだいさく)(1939― )の『劒岳(つるぎだけ) 点の記』(2008)は明治時代に剣岳に初登頂した人々の実話だが、撮影監督の木村大作がその撮影力を全開にして山岳に取り組んだところによさがあった。また、長年ごくわずかしかいなかった女性監督が、1990年代ごろから急速に増えてくる。『かもめ食堂』(2005)や『トイレット』(2010)の荻上直子(おぎがみなおこ)(1972― )や、『ゆれる』(2006)の西川美和(にしかわみわ)(1974― )などを代表にあげることができる。彼女たちによって日本人の生活をみる視野は確実に広がった。 映画製作で近年目だつ現象は、大作と低予算作品との両極分解が進行していることである。大作は民間放送のテレビ局や映画会社をはじめ、出版社や商事会社など、いくつかの会社の共同出資によってつくられるもので、できあがった作品は、東宝をトップとする大手配給網で公開される。予算は潤沢でぜいたくな配役をすることができるが、一作ごとに資金を回収しなければならないので、商売的成功のプレッシャーが大きいため、内容的には通俗に流れやすい。他方、低予算映画は、客席が100程度のミニシアターでしか上映できないために、あまりにも貧相な作品になりやすい。商業主義と、芸術性や社会性を追求しようとする作家たちとの葛藤は、映画史上いつの時代にもみられる現象であるが、それが平成時代に入ってからは、シネコンを中心とする大手配給網の映画と、ミニシアターなどの単館系映画との分裂、という傾向が両極となっている。しかし、それぞれの映画にも良い作品はあり、さらなる前進を期待したい。 [佐藤忠男] 『飯島正著『日本映画史』全2巻(1955・白水社)』▽『田中純一郎著『日本映画発達史』全5巻(1957~1980・中央公論社)』▽『岩崎昶著『日本現代史大系 映画史』(1961・東洋経済新報社)』▽『佐藤忠男著『現代日本映画』全3冊(1969~1979・評論社)』▽『小川徹他編『現代日本映画論大系』全6巻(1971~1972・冬樹社)』▽『今村昌平他編『講座日本映画』全8巻(1985~1988・岩波書店)』▽『佐藤忠男著『日本映画と日本文化』(1987・未来社)』▽『『日本映画人名事典 女優篇』上下(1995・キネマ旬報社)』▽『『日本映画人名事典 男優篇』上下(1996・キネマ旬報社)』▽『佐藤忠男著『日本映画の巨匠たち1~3』(1996~1997・学陽書房)』▽『山田和夫著『日本映画101年――未来への挑戦』(1997・新日本出版社)』▽『『日本映画人名事典・監督篇』(1997・キネマ旬報社)』▽『岩本憲児編著『ビジュアル版日本文化史シリーズ 日本映画の歴史 写真・絵画集成』全3巻(1998・日本図書センター)』▽『丸山一昭著『世界が注目する日本映画の変容』(1998・草思社)』▽『村上世彰・小川典文著『日本映画産業最前線』(1999・角川書店)』▽『『日本映画ニューウェイヴ――「リアル」の彼方へ』(2000・エスクァイアマガジンジャパン)』▽『古川隆久著『戦時下の日本映画――人々は国策映画を観たか』(2003・吉川弘文館)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書1 日本映画とナショナリズム 1931~1945』(2004・森話社)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書2 映画と「大東亜共栄圏」』(2004・森話社)』▽『西嶋憲生編『日本映画史叢書3 映像表現のオルタナティヴ――一九六〇年代の逸脱と創造』(2005・森話社)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書4 時代劇伝説――チャンバラ映画の輝き』(2005・森話社)』▽『村山匡一郎編『日本映画史叢書5 映画は世界を記録する――ドキュメンタリー再考』(2006・森話社)』▽『斉藤綾子編『日本映画史叢書6 映画と身体/性』(2006・森話社)』▽『佐藤忠男著『日本映画史』全4巻・増補版(2006~2007・岩波書店)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書7 家族の肖像――ホームドラマとメロドラマ』(2007・森話社)』▽『佐藤忠男編『日本の映画人――日本映画の創始者たち』(2007・日外アソシエーツ、紀伊國屋書店発売)』▽『内山一樹編『日本映画史叢書 8 怪奇と幻想への回路――怪談からJホラーへ』(2008・森話社)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書9 映画のなかの天皇――禁断の肖像』(2007・森話社)』▽『奥村賢編『日本映画史叢書10 映画と戦争――撮る欲望/見る欲望』(2009・森話社)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書11 占領下の映画――解放と検閲』(2009・森話社)』▽『十重田裕一編『日本映画史叢書12 横断する映画と文学』(2011・森話社)』▽『神山彰・児玉竜一編『日本映画史叢書13 映画のなかの古典芸能』(2010・森話社)』▽『藤木秀朗編『日本映画史叢書14 観客へのアプローチ』(2011・森話社)』▽『岩本憲児編『日本映画史叢書15 日本映画の誕生』(2011・森話社)』▽『黒沢清・吉見俊哉・四方田犬彦・李鳳宇編『日本映画は生きている』全8巻(2010~2011・岩波書店)』▽『加藤幹郎著『日本映画論 1933~2007――テクストとコンテクスト』(2011・岩波書店)』▽『『ぴあシネマクラブ 日本映画編』各年版(ぴあ)』▽『田中純一郎著『日本映画発達史』全5巻・決定版(中公文庫)』▽『四方田犬彦著『日本映画史100年』(集英社新書)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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Also called matte (kawa). An intermediate product...
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A city in southern Gifu Prefecture. It was incorpo...
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