Clown - Douke

Japanese: 道化 - どうけ
Clown - Douke

Funny, comical words and actions that make people laugh. It can refer to people who behave in such a comical way, and often also to clowns or clown actors who make such words and actions their profession. It can also refer to the clowns (dogae) in kabuki. There are various theories about the origin of the word "douke" itself, including one that it is "child's play" or "douke," another that it is a corrupted version of "odoke" or "tawake," and another that it comes from the name of a certain Douke who was a retainer of the Sengoku warlord Saito Dosan and made people laugh with his funny behavior, so it is not certain. Incidentally, the Chinese equivalent is "huaqi" (humorous). In English, it is "fool," in French, it is "fou," and in German, it is "narr," but in all cases, there is no differentiation between the general usage of a fool who does foolish things and the narrow usage of a person whose profession is to make comical remarks and deeds, and it is often difficult to decide whether to interpret "fool" as a fool or a clown. Also, the distinction in usage between "jester," a jester employed by the court or aristocracy, and "clown," a clown who appears in the circus, vaudeville, and slapstick comedy in movies, is extremely ambiguous, and "fool" is sometimes used as a general term for all of them.

Just as an individual cannot survive on work and rationality alone, and maintains equilibrium as a living organism by relaxing through various jokes and foolish acts, a community also maintains equilibrium by contrasting the everyday (ke) centered on work and rationality with the extraordinary (hare) centered on collective foolishness for a certain period of time, and as this function as a relaxation or safety valve essential to maintaining life is gradually institutionalized, festivals as a space and clowns as a role are established. It is because of this essential connection that clowns are an indispensable part of festive spaces such as various folk fertility rituals around the world, the medieval church's "Feast of Fools" and its descendant carnival.

Just as festivals aim to reverse the everyday order of gender and class, and to create a so-called "upside-down world," the role of the clown is characterized by thorough ambiguity, such as being androgynous. The ambiguity of the clown is symbolized by its mismatched costume, called motley. It appears on the border between the binary opposing categories of the everyday world, and when the world hardens into one of two monistic values, it attacks that world with ridicule from the perspective of the oppressed values. It takes the form of a satirist of society, but since social morality generally tends to suppress the vulgarity that comes with the human body (sex, eating, drinking, excretion), the clown, as a critic, conversely exaggerates the physicality of humans. The clown embodies a view of the human body that separates humans from spirituality and rationality and sees them as just flesh, a bag through which the wind passes. Incidentally, the Latin root of the word "fool" is follis, which means "bag" or "bellows."

Alternatively, the clown can be said to express the repressed unconscious part of human life force on a deeper level. In other words, it expresses what Freud calls the Es (instinctual drive, also called the id) or pleasure principle, and what Jung calls the archetype. When culture tries to repress the physical indecency of humans and give dominance to the mind, the clown appears as the bearer of repressed physicality, and functions as a "compensation" (Jung) against the rigidity of culture.

Thus, the clown expresses various elements (sex, violence, destruction, waste, liberty, irrationality) that are repressed by the everyday world, and by taking on such a negative role, it has maintained the balance of culture. It can be said that it is a safety valve that uses laughter as a method that a rigid community requires in order to revitalize itself, and if society is revitalized by it, then the clown has an revitalizing function that seems to have its origins in ancient folk fertility rituals. Furthermore, if society returns to the everyday world once again by expelling the clown, who has fulfilled his function as a safety valve, then the clown also plays the role of a scapegoat. The clown brings fertility to the world through his excessive sexual expression, maintains the balance of society, and lends a hand to the renewal of culture, but once he has fulfilled his role, he must be repressed again.

In ancient Rome, the Saturnalia was held every December to celebrate Saturn, the god of agriculture. A mock king was chosen to rule at the end of the year, and was given the temporary right to deviate from and reverse the norms of daily life. At the end of the festival, he played the role of a scapegoat to be killed for the community's defilement. The role of the jester in the medieval and early modern periods, who was called the Lord of Misrule, or "King of Freedom," and acted as a mock king, and the role of the "Fools' Bishop" in the "Feast of Fools," a medieval church event held by monks who reversed all daily religious practices, all have their origins in the function of the jester in the ancient Roman agricultural rituals.

However, the "Feast of Fools," which was tolerated in the Middle Ages, was gradually suppressed in the modern era and became secularized into a kind of guild of fools. The clown, who was a critic of negative power, found an outlet in the theater, such as the 16th-17th century Italian improvised masked theater Commedia dell'arte, the early 17th century Elizabethan theater led by Shakespeare, pantomime that was a descendant of the Roman mimos theater, and the 17th century German folk theater Hans Wurst Theater. In Japan, various clowns, including "Saruwaka," were active in Kabuki and Kyogen, and clown actors performed scathing social satire through their comical gestures and unrestrained wordplay. On the other hand, modern absolutist monarchies had court jesters in their courts and took the approach of institutionalizing the satire that would be directed at them into the harsh words of the clowns.

In the 19th century, when labor and rationality were worshipped, stage jesters degenerated into clowns and pierrots in circuses and pantomimes, and court jesters degenerated into dandies who fed on bourgeois culture. Artists such as Baudelaire and Picasso expressed their antisocial tendencies in the form of the "sad clown." Clowns are not only found in the theater, but also in clown literature that generously tolerates human stupidity, beginning with Erasmus' "Praise of Folly" in the 16th century and Rabelais' "Gargantua-Pantagruel." These lineages have also fired satirical arrows at the celebration of carnality in each era, and have been brilliantly revived in the slapstick of silent movies, absurdist theater such as Beckett's, and novels featuring anti-heroes. Furthermore, it is still fresh in our memory that in the 1960s, within the international cultural criticism movement that questioned the monistic values ​​of modernity, the ambiguity of Jesus Christ as a clown trickster who easily transcended categorical divisions such as class and gender attracted a great deal of attention as a possible model of intelligence.

[Hiroshi Takayama]

"The Works of François Rabelais and the Popular Culture of the Middle Ages and Renaissance" by M. Bakhchin, translated by Kawabata Kaori (1973, Serika Shobo)""The Folklore of the Clown" by Yamaguchi Masao (1975, Shinchosha / 1985, Chikuma Shobo)""The Clown" by E. Wellsford, translated by Naito Kenji (1979, Shobunsha)""The Clown and the Scepter" by W. Wilford, translated by Takayama Hiroshi (1983, Shobunsha)""The Upside-Down World" edited by B. Babcock, translated by Iwasaki Muneharu and Inoue Kaneyuki (1984, Iwanami Shoten)""The Literature of the Clown" by Takahashi Koya (Chuko Shinsho)

[References] | Commedia dell'arte | Dougaikata | Trickster | Pierrot

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

見る人を笑わせるようなおもしろく、おどけたことばおよび行動。そうしたおどけた言行をなす人間をいうこともあるし、さらにそうした言行を専門的職業とする道化師、道化役者をいうことも多い。歌舞伎(かぶき)の道化(道外)方(どうけがた)をさすこともある。「道化」ということばの起源自体は「童戯」「道戯」であろうという説、オドケやタワケからの転訛(てんか)であろうという説、それから戦国武将斎藤道三(どうさん)の家臣でおかしな風態をもって人の笑いを誘った道家某の名に由来するという説など諸説あって確かではない。ちなみに中国語では「滑稽(ホワチ)」がこれに相当する。英語では「フール」fool、フランス語では「フー」fou、ドイツ語では「ナル」Narrがこれにあたるが、愚行をなす馬鹿(ばか)者をいう一般的用法と滑稽(こっけい)な言行を専門的職業とする人をさす狭義の用法とが未分化であることはみな同じで、「フール」を愚か者ととるか道化役者ととるかで困る場合が多い。また宮廷や貴族のお抱え道化師「ジェスター」jesterや、サーカス、ボードビル、映画のスラプスティック・コメディに出てくる「クラウン」clownといった同系列の語とも用法上の区別はきわめてあいまいで、それらを総称する語として「フール」が使われたりもする。

 1人の個人を考えてみても、労働と合理性のみでは生きていけず、さまざまなジョークや愚行で息抜きを行いながら生命体としての平衡を保つように、一共同体も、労働と合理を核とする日常(ケ)に集合的な愚行を核とする非日常(ハレ)を一定期間対置させることによって平衡を保つが、そうした生命維持に必須(ひっす)の息抜き、ないし安全弁としての機能が徐々に制度化してくると、空間としての祝祭、そして役割としての道化が成立してくる。世界中の各種民俗的豊穣(ほうじょう)儀礼、中世教会の「愚者の饗宴(きょうえん)」やその末裔(まつえい)たるカーニバルといった祝祭の空間に道化が付き物なのも、そうした本質的なつながりのゆえである。

 祝祭が男女や階級といった日常的秩序の逆転を目ざし、いわゆる「逆(さか)さまの世界」の現出を目ざすように、役割としての道化も、たとえば両性具有的であるなど、徹底的な両義性を特徴とする。モトリー(だんだら服)とよばれるそのちぐはぐな衣装に道化の両義性は象徴される。日常世界の二項対立的な範疇(はんちゅう)の境界域に出没して、世界がどちらか一元的な価値観へと硬化するときには、抑圧された側の価値観の側から、そうした世界を嗤(わら)い攻撃する。社会への風刺者という形をとるわけだが、社会道徳は概して、人間が肉体をもつゆえの猥雑(わいざつ)さ(性、飲食、排泄(はいせつ))を抑圧する傾きがあるため、その批判者たる道化は逆に、人間の肉体性を誇張する。人間を精神性や合理性とひとまず切り離してただの肉体、風の通り抜けていく袋とみるような肉体観を道化は体現している。ちなみに「フール」のラテン語源フォリスfollisは、「袋」ないし「鞴(ふいご)」を意味するのである。

 あるいは、道化はもっと深い次元で人間生命力の抑圧された無意識の部分を表現しているということもできる。すなわちフロイト心理学でいうエスEs(本能的欲動。イドidともいう)ないし快楽原則を、ユング心理学でいうアーキタイプArchetype(元型)を表現する。文化が人間の肉体的猥雑さを抑圧し精神に優位を与えようとするとき、道化は抑圧された肉体性を担って表れ、文化の硬直化に対して、「補償」(ユング)として機能するのである。

 こうして道化は、日常的世界が抑圧するさまざまの要素(性、暴力、破壊、蕩尽(とうじん)、放恣(ほうし)、非合理)を表現し、そういう負(ふ)の役割を担うことで文化に平衡を保たせてきた。それは、硬直しつつある共同体が自らを活性化するために要請する、笑いを方法とした安全弁なのだということができるし、それで社会が賦活(ふかつ)するとすれば、道化には古代の民俗的豊穣儀礼にまで淵源(えんげん)するとおぼしい活性化機能があるのだということになる。さらに安全弁としての機能を果たした道化を追放することによって、社会がふたたび日常的世界に戻っていくのだとすれば、道化にはスケープゴートとしての役割があることにもなる。道化はその過剰な性的表現を介して世界に豊穣をもたらし、社会に平衡を保たせ、文化の更新に力を貸しながら、その役割を果たせばふたたび抑圧されねばならない。

 古代ローマでは農耕神サトゥルヌスを記念してサトゥルナリア祭が毎年12月に催された。そこでは偽王(モック・キングmock king)が選ばれ、1年の終わりに日常的規範からの逸脱と逆転をほしいままにする一時的支配権をゆだねられ、そして祭りの終わりには共同体の穢(けが)れを担って殺害されるスケープゴートとしての役割を果たした。中世・近世の道化師がロード・オブ・ミスルールlord of misruleすなわち「無礼講の王」とよばれて偽王としてふるまったのも、中世教会で日常的宗教慣習をことごとく逆転させて行われた僧侶(そうりょ)たちの「愚者の饗宴」で「阿呆(あほう)の司教」が果たした役割も、みなこの古代ローマの農耕儀礼における道化の機能に淵源する。

 しかし、中世には寛大に扱われていた「愚者の饗宴」は近代に入ると徐々に抑圧を被り、一種のギルドとしての愚行結社へと世俗化していったし、負の力を担う批判者としての道化は、16~17世紀イタリアの即興仮面劇コメディア・デラルテ、シェークスピアを筆頭とする17世紀初めのエリザベス朝演劇、ローマのミモス劇の流れをくむパントマイム、17世紀ドイツ民衆演劇であるハンスウルスト劇といった演劇のなかに、そのはけ口をみいだしていった。日本でも歌舞伎や狂言において「猿若(さるわか)」をはじめ多様な道化方が活躍し、滑稽なしぐさ、奔放な言語遊戯を介して道化役者たちは痛烈な社会風刺を行った。一方、近代絶対主義王権はその宮廷に宮廷道化(コート・ジェスター)を抱え、自己に向けられるはずの風刺をあらかじめ道化の毒舌に制度化しておくという方法をとった。

 19世紀になり労働と合理とが一方的に崇拝される時代、舞台道化たちはサーカスやパントマイムのクラウンやピエロへと、宮廷道化はブルジョア文化に寄食する文化人(ダンディ)へと退化した。ボードレール、ピカソといった芸術家たちが、自らの反社会性を「悲しきクラウン」の形象に託した。また、道化は演劇の分野のみならず、16世紀『愚神礼賛(らいさん)』のエラスムスや『ガルガンチュワ‐パンタグリュエル物語』のラブレーなどに始まる、人間の愚劣をおおらかに許容する道化文学にも結実し、それらの系譜も各時代に肉体性謳歌(おうか)の風刺の矢を放ち、それはサイレント映画のどたばたやベケットなどの不条理演劇のなかに、あるいはアンチ・ヒーローの活躍する小説のなかに華々しくよみがえっている。さらに1960年代には、近代の一元的価値観を疑問視する国際的な文化的批判運動のなかで、階級、男女などの範疇区分をやすやすと越える道化のトリックスターとしての両義性が、ありうべき知性のモデルとして大いに注目されたことは、まだ記憶に新しい。

[高山 宏]

『M・バフチーン著、川端香男里訳『フランソワ・ラブレーの作品と中世・ルネッサンスの民衆文化』(1973・せりか書房)』『山口昌男著『道化の民俗学』(1975・新潮社/1985・筑摩書房)』『E・ウェルズフォード著、内藤健二訳『道化』(1979・晶文社)』『W・ウィルフォード著、高山宏訳『道化と笏杖』(1983・晶文社)』『B・バブコック編、岩崎宗治・井上兼行訳『さかさまの世界』(1984・岩波書店)』『高橋康也著『道化の文学』(中公新書)』

[参照項目] | コメディア・デラルテ | 道外方 | トリックスター | ピエロ

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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