Chinese literature

Japanese: 中国文学 - ちゅうごくぶんがく

The scope and characteristics of Chinese literature

Generally speaking, Chinese literature refers to literature expressed in the Chinese language and its written characters, Chinese characters, in China, where the Han people are the main race. Originally, China was a kind of multi-ethnic nation where many ethnic groups coexisted in addition to the Han people, and ethnic groups that use languages and characters other than Chinese and Chinese characters have existed from ancient times to the present. Although each ethnic group has its own literary tradition, in pre-modern China, literature other than that of the Han people was hardly given much importance, and there was no need to give it importance. This is because throughout the entire history of China, the bearers of not only literature but also academics and culture have always been the Han people, and this basic situation did not change even during periods when the country was politically dominated by non-Han people, such as the Yuan and Qing dynasties. Sometimes, literature of non-Han people was transferred to Chinese language and characters and incorporated into the literature of the Han people, but this was relatively rare, and the process of assimilating into that of the Han people was rather common.

In other words, Chinese literature, as a part of Chinese language and character culture, has long developed independently, primarily among the Han people, and has been isolated from other ethnic groups or countries with little influence. It can be said that Chinese literature began to change significantly after the literary revolution at the beginning of the 20th century, influenced by literature of a different nature. While Chinese classical literature did have a major impact on neighboring countries in the Chinese character culture sphere, such as the Korean Peninsula and Japan, it is rare in world literature in that it has maintained its exclusive uniqueness for approximately 3,000 years. There are various possible reasons for this, such as geography or ethnicity, but the uniqueness of this isolation is its primary characteristic.

The second characteristic is that it is literature that uses Chinese words and characters as a medium, and it created a literary form with a unique rhythm and imagery that took advantage of the characteristics of Chinese words and characters, which are basically monosyllabic, and the characters, which are rich in ideographic meaning. On the other hand, however, it cannot be denied that because it required a great deal of effort to understand the vast number of complex characters, Chinese characters became the monopoly of a small number of intellectuals, and the transmission of classical literature was limited to a small number of people. Changes in this situation also had to await the literary revolution.

The fact that intellectuals were the main bearers of literature is not unrelated to the fact that Chinese literature generally values realism and has a strong political coloring. Behind this third characteristic is the existence of Confucianism, which has been the basis for the formation of Chinese intellectuals' thoughts since the Han dynasty. It is impossible to think of China's view of literature before the literary revolution without considering Confucianism, which is closely related to real politics.

In addition, a fourth characteristic can be counted: antiquarianism, emphasis on tradition, and their repetition and continuation. All of the above characteristics have been described with a focus on classical literature, and modern and contemporary literature started from the negation of classical literature. However, the emphasis on the political aspects of literature, although qualitatively different, seems to be a common feature.

[Sato Tamotsu]

History of Chinese Literature

As mentioned above, Chinese literature has undergone a qualitative change since the literary revolution at the beginning of the 20th century. The period from before and after the literary revolution up until the end of the Qing Dynasty is divided into classical literature, and the period after that is called modern and contemporary literature. Modern and contemporary literature is sometimes further called contemporary literature after the founding of the People's Republic of China, but for the sake of convenience, we will discuss each of them in more detail by period.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Pre-Qin Literature

The ancestors of the Chinese people, who built one of the world's oldest civilizations in the Yellow River basin in the north and the Yangtze River basin in the south, created songs that could be called work songs while living on the land. There is no doubt that they sang many songs praying for a good harvest, giving thanks for the harvest, encouraging and comforting people while working in the fields. Most of these songs have now been lost to history, but from the fragmentary descriptions found in old documents, we can infer what the songs of the ancient Chinese were like. As with the literature of other countries, the source of Chinese literature was also the songs that were deeply rooted in daily life.

Songs usually have rhythm and rhyme that are easy for people to remember. This form, which is suitable for oral transmission, was an important form of communication when writing was not yet developed. For example, traces of oral transmission of songs can be found here and there in ancient records and documents, such as the divination inscriptions (words of divination carved into tortoise shells and animal bones) discovered in large numbers at ruins of the Yin dynasty, whose capital was located in what is now Anyang City, Henan Province, around 1300 BC, and the Book of Documents, a collection of records of the founding of the Zhou dynasty, whose capital was located near Chang'an, Shaanxi Province, around 1000 BC. Of course, compared to later literary forms such as verse, the rhythm and rhyme of the poem are simple and unadorned, and the ancient Chinese had no intention of creating "literature" in the first place; it was, so to speak, a wisdom born out of necessity. However, they accumulated experience over a long period of time to create a form of song. This is China's oldest collection of songs, the Book of Songs. The Book of Songs is a book of songs that were sung in the Yellow River basin in the north, and is based on a four-syllable rhythm. Although the style varies, rhyme is an essential requirement. The book as it exists today is thought to have been in existence around 600 BC, and contains songs from the founding of the Zhou dynasty around 1000 BC. In particular, the "national style" songs, which make up the majority of the works included in the Book of Songs, vividly convey the lifestyles of the people throughout the Zhou dynasty, and had a considerable influence on later literary figures. While the Book of Songs is a collection of folk songs from the Yellow River basin in the north, a unique style of verse with a different rhythm from the songs in the Book of Songs also developed in the Yangtze River basin in the south. Southern folk songs, which have a much more complex form than those in the Book of Songs, later came to be called "Chu Ci" after the region was called Chu at the time, but it was not until Qu Yuan appeared at the end of the pre-Qin period, at the end of the Warring States period, that they made a clear appearance in literary history. Qu Yuan's works were born from his tragic life and were the first unique literary works in Chinese literature.

During this period, the records and didactic texts of the Zhou Dynasty, mainly compiled during the Spring and Autumn Period - a group of books called "classics" by Confucians - and the many books that emerged from the activities of the various schools of thought during the Warring States Period were all compiled for political or didactic purposes and had no direct connection to literature. The Book of Songs was also respected by Confucians as a classic, and it came to be given a kind of political and ethical meaning, that is, the idea that folk songs are a direct reflection of politics and a valuable source of information for thinking about politics, and that literature and politics are inseparable and are also inseparably related to ethics and morality. This Confucian view of literature dominated Chinese literature for a long time thereafter. However, the clear logic and persuasive metaphoric techniques that are prominent in these classics, especially in the books of the various school of thought during the Warring States Period, were of great significance as a source of rhetoric in later generations of literature.

It is often pointed out that China has a paucity of myths and legends, and this is blamed on Confucianism, which did its utmost to eliminate anything unrealistic, and these points are probably correct. However, in recent years, mythology researchers have been unearthing and sorting ancient Chinese myths, and their research has shown that China is not necessarily scarce compared to other countries. By carefully collecting the myths and legends that have already been passed down in fragments in many books, a vivid fantasy world rooted in the lives of the ancient Chinese as an agricultural people is beginning to emerge.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Qin and Chinese literature

This period spans approximately 400 years, from 221 BC, when the Qin Dynasty unified the world, to 220 AD, when the Han Dynasty fell. The literary features of this period include the creation of "fu," the popularity of "gafu," and the birth of "historical literature." With his powerful military power as a backdrop, Qin Shi Huang conquered the feudal lords one after another and unified the world. At the same time as reforming the political system, he also unified the writing system and the use of weights and measures, laying the foundation for the unified development of culture and socio-economics that followed. However, the rapid changes ultimately led to a political collapse, and the Qin Dynasty was short-lived. There was nothing particularly noteworthy in Qin literature, and it was not until the following Han Dynasty that major literary developments were made.

The Han people loved the southern Chuci songs, and many writers followed Qu Yuan's lead. From these Chuci songs a new literary form was born, one that used more elaborate rhetoric and elegant language. This form is called "fu" or "cifu." Long narrative verse poems that describe various events in the grand empire were highly praised as the Han dynasty literature that created the great empire, and its literary status was established by Sima Xiangru, who was active during the reign of Emperor Wu, when the empire reached its peak. Fu was popular throughout both the early and late Han dynasties, and with the emergence of such excellent writers as Yang Xiong and Ban Gu, further ingenuity was added to the content and form.

Meanwhile, new songs different from those in the Book of Songs and the Chu Ci were popular among the general public at that time. The name "Yefu" for this type of song comes from the name of the government office that collected and organized them at the time. Intellectuals became interested in Yuefu and eventually began to imitate them themselves, which was of course due to the Confucian view of literature mentioned above, but above all else, it was their fresh charm that attracted them. Yuefu melodies were forgotten and disappeared over time, and new melodies were born one after another, but the love of Yuefu continued to the distant future, and whenever poetry was innovated, the Han dynasty Yuefu was always recalled and calls for a return to it were made.

The form of music is diverse, and many of them have complex forms that mix long and short phrases. However, among them, the rhythm of five lines was particularly popular, and the five-line poem form was eventually established. The earliest work of this type is "Nineteen Ancient Poems."

We must not forget the growth of prose writing during this period. Most of the documents from the pre-Qin period were organized, reorganized, and annotated during the Han dynasty, but prose writing, which had been invented by the various schools of thought during the Warring States period, made further advances during this period. Representative examples of this are historical writings such as the Records of the Grand Historian by Sima Qian of the Western Han dynasty and the Book of Han by Ban Gu of the Eastern Han dynasty, also known as "historical biographical literature." The former in particular is not merely a record of facts as a history book, but succeeds in vividly portraying human figures in history based on deep insight into human nature.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Literature of the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties

This period covers the 400 years from the Three Kingdoms period, when political turmoil at the end of the Later Han dynasty led to the division of China into the three kingdoms of Wei, Wu, and Shu, through the Northern and Southern Dynasties, when foreign tribes ruled the northern half of China, to the Sui dynasty unifying the country in 589. It was a time of hardship for people amid social unrest caused by successive changes of government and invasions by foreign tribes, but in terms of literature, there were no small fruits of this period, such as the popularity of five-character poetry and Yuefu, the perfection of a beautiful style of writing known as benbun, and the birth of an independent literary consciousness.

The Cao family of Wei, Cao Cao, Cao Pi, and Cao Zhi, were at the center of not only politics but also culture, and many literary figures gathered around them. The Cao family and their sons were interested in incorporating their own emotions into the five-character poetry that had emerged in the previous era, and they succeeded in creating unique lyric poetry rich in rhetoric. Seven literary figures, including the Cao family and their sons, Wang Can and Chen Lin (?-217), who were also instrumental in the innovation of five-character poetry, are known as the "Seven Sons of Jian'an."

The trend of five-character poetry later spread the poetic world through the efforts of a few outstanding poets, such as Ruan Ji of the Wei dynasty, one of the "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove," who sang contemplative content in his "Reminiscence Poems," and Tao Qian (or Tao Yuanming) of the Jin dynasty, who discovered the beauty of the countryside. However, during the Southern Dynasties period, when the Han people were driven to Jiangnan, aristocrats and powerful clans produced a large number of "palace style poems" that sang the beauty of women and "mountain and water poems" that described the beauty of nature, refining their poetic lines and solely pursuing the beauty of linguistic expression. However, the exploration of rhythm by Shen Yue and others of the Qi dynasty, who focused on the musicality of poetry, eventually gave rise to the so-called "modern style poetry" (poetry in the modern style) such as regulated verse and quatrains during the Tang dynasty.

This tendency to make poetry rhetorical coincided with the popularity of rhetorical, beautiful prose, the "Paiwen" style, which was derived from fu at the time. The interest in aesthetic literature is reflected in the selection of poems and prose in the "Wen Xuan" compiled by Prince Zhaoming of the Liang Dynasty, and in the collection of erotic poems in the "Yutai New Poems" by Xu Ling of the same Liang Dynasty.

The popularity of music was also one of the characteristics of this period, but while the Southern Court music sang of delicate emotions such as love between men and women, the Northern Court music was simple and powerful, and long epic pieces were also produced.

One notable thing about this period was the emergence of opinions that recognized the unique value of literature and were conscious of the significance of being involved in literature. Works such as Cao Pi's "Essay on the Classics" and Lu Ji's "Wen Fu" from the Jin dynasty could be seen as declarations of the independence of literature, which had not necessarily been given much importance in the past. In response to this atmosphere, the first literary critique in China, Liu Xing's "Wen Xin Diao Long," and Zhong Yu's "Shihin," a treatise on poetry, were written during the Liang dynasty.

This was also the period when interest in people's behavior and unusual occurrences grew, and many books appeared, such as the Shishuo Xinyu (Song Dynasty, Liu Yiqing, 403-444), which recorded anecdotes about famous people, and the Soushinji (Jin Dynasty, Gan Bao), which collected strange tales passed down among folk. Stories of the latter type are called "ghost novels."

[Sato Tamotsu]

Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties Literature

This period of about 400 years, including the Tang Dynasty that lasted about 290 years, was the golden age of Chinese poetry. The Sui Dynasty, which reunited China, which had been divided into North and South, tried to correct the extravagance of Southern Dynasty culture, but this was short-lived and had no significant effect, and Southern Dynasty culture was carried over into the early Tang Dynasty.

The situation in literature was similar, and the early Tang was a time when poetry and prose in the style of the Southern Dynasties were generally popular. However, gradually the demand for new literature for a new era grew stronger, and innovation in poetry was undertaken. This began when Chen Zi'ang (Chin Su'ang) at the end of the early Tang advocated a restoration and criticized the meaningless rhetorical tendency of the poetry of the Southern Dynasties. In response to this, during the Prosperous Tang, talented poets such as Wang Wei (Wang Wei), Li Bai (Li Bai), and Du Fu (Du Fu) each produced unique works, and Chinese poetry made a great leap forward. It was also during the Prosperous Tang that the poetic form of "near-style poetry" was perfected from the rhyming techniques that had been accumulated since the Southern Dynasties, and it became clearly distinguishable from previous poetry. Poetry before the Tang is called "ancient-style poetry," but after the Tang, the two styles of "near-style" and "ancient style" coexisted.

As the power of the Tang dynasty gradually declined after the High Tang period, the vitality of poetry also began to decline, and poets began to turn their attention to delicate rhetorical expression. In response to this trend in poetry, Bai Juyi (Bakukyo) in the mid-Tang period focused on the vitality of the old Han dynasty's Yuefu and created "New Yuefu," advocating the innovation of poetry. Around the same time, Han Yu (Kanyu) opposed the bi-wen style, which had been increasingly colored by aesthetic culture since the Southern Dynasties, and advocated "classical texts," beginning a reform of literary style. Although Bai Juyi and Han Yu advocated different styles of poetry and prose, they shared an underlying spirit of restoration. However, the tendency to aestheticize poetry and prose could no longer be stopped, and a delicate aesthetic trend became common from the mid-Tang period to the late Tang period. Poets, on the other hand, gradually became interested in the new lyric songs known as shi, which had become popular among the people around the mid-Tang period, and some began to make an effort to create them. Shi developed greatly during the Five Dynasties period, and became one of the main literary forms in the following Song dynasty.

The Tang Dynasty is also known for the popularity of novels known as "legendary novels." Unlike the "mysterious novels" of the Southern Dynasties, these were a kind of fictionalized story that was consciously fictional, and most of the authors were intellectuals. They were written in proper literary style, and were also connected to Han Yu's ancient literature movement. Reflecting the penetration of Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty, "bianwen" was born, an oral literary art that explained Buddhist doctrines to the general public in an easy-to-understand way. It was also called "zokkou," and the narrators were monks who taught it. At the beginning of the 20th century, a large number of valuable documents were discovered in Dunhuang, a city in the western desert, and many copies of "bianwen" were found, revealing their true nature.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Song and Jin Dynasty Literature

This period of more than 300 years, spanning the Northern Song dynasty and the Southern Song dynasty, the northern half of which was occupied by the Jin dynasty, was a turning point for Chinese classical literature.

First, there was a change in the social status of literary figures. Even before then, the ability to compose poetry and write prose was valued as an essential part of the education of intellectuals, and outstanding talent was highly valued by the people. In particular, during the Tang Dynasty, poetry subjects were included in the imperial examinations, and the presence or absence of literary talent determined whether one could enter the government. However, during the Tang Dynasty, the evaluation of literary talent did not necessarily coincide with social status. Even in the imperial examinations, where literary talent was supposed to guarantee success, outstanding talent was often not understood and was easily ignored. The unfortunate lives of many Tang poets are the best evidence of this. This was because the standards for evaluating literature were relatively low in a society where the traditional aristocratic families and powerful clans held the political lead. The situation gradually changed with the decline of the aristocratic class after the Anshi Rebellion (755-763) at the end of the prosperous Tang period, and became decisive when the Song Dynasty established a political system that favored civil servants. The literary talent of those taking the imperial examinations was, so to speak, duly evaluated, and their social status was guaranteed. During the mid-Northern Song Dynasty, members of the emerging intellectual class, including Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi, and Su Shi, who were highly talented in literature, also became active in the political world.

The world of Song poetry that they pioneered was more rational than Tang poetry, which prized passionate and sensual ideas and expressions, and sang of various events occurring around them calmly through calm observation of daily life. Some poets, such as Lu You of the Southern Song, passionately sang of the humiliating situation of their homeland, but the style of poetry of the Jiangxi school that emerged at the end of the Northern Song was widely accepted by the people for its simplicity, and played a major role in popularizing poetry. Song poetry generally restrained the expression of emotions, and was characterized by "intellectual" and "simple and calm." In addition, the tendency for poets to strengthen their associational ties and for lyrics to be actively written at the same time as poetry became more pronounced as the Northern Song moved from the Southern Song to the Southern Song, and eventually professional poets who made a living by selling poetry appeared in the middle of the Southern Song. During this period, classical prose, as advocated by Han Yu, was the mainstream.

The literary situation of the Jin dynasty, represented by the Yuan Haowen, was roughly equivalent to that of the Song dynasty, but it often showed an approach to the emotional poetry of the Tang dynasty, reflecting the situation of oppression by the Han people.

The next notable change in literature is the development of popular literature, which could be called popular literature. The social and economic development centered on Jiangnan during the Song Dynasty led to a dramatic advancement in the urban consumer economy, and markets became very lively. As a result, various popular performing arts such as "setsuwa," a type of storytelling, musical and dance dramas, shadow plays, puppet shows, and acrobatics were performed in the entertainment districts of urban markets, entertaining people. In the next period, these would grow significantly into popular literature.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasty Literature

This period, spanning about 600 years, was the last period of classical literature. Although there were no new developments in the form of poetry, prose, or lyrics, the class of writers expanded greatly to include ordinary people. Poetry was influenced by Song poetry for a while, but in the Ming dynasty, the Seven Talents (Seven Talented Men) advocated learning from the poetry of the prosperous Tang dynasty, and Tang-style poetry became popular again. However, at the end of the Qing dynasty, the Song style of poetry was briefly revived. Overall, the vitality seen up until the Song dynasty faded, and although there were some excellent lyric poets such as Wang Shizhen (or Wang Shizhen) and Yuan Mei of the Qing dynasty, the trend toward flatness and formalism was already unstoppable. Prose, too, was generally lacking in appeal. In order to alleviate the negative effects of the formalistic "eight-legged prose" that was popular during the Ming dynasty, the Qing dynasty advocated a restorationist "Tongcheng school" of classical prose, which became widely popular, but by the end of the Qing dynasty it itself was criticized as being too formalistic, and was targeted for overthrow during the literary revolution. Rather, it was popular literature that proved more fruitful, such as the Yuan dynasty plays known as "Yuan Opera" or "Yuan Zaju" and the Ming dynasty's long vernacular novels. Yuan Opera was originally a form of theatre derived from the operas of the Song and Jin dynasties, but during the Ming and Qing dynasties it further developed into plays known as "legendary dramas." Ming dynasty novels such as "Water Margin," "Romance of the Three Kingdoms," and "Journey to the West" are characterized by the fact that they are all written in colloquial language (vernacular), and these also have their origins in the Song dynasty's narrative "shuwa." The experience of creating these novels eventually led to the creation of Qing dynasty works such as "Dream of the Red Chamber" and "The History of the Confucian Scholars." The Qing dynasty, the last period of classical literature, was also a time of a very academic atmosphere. For this reason, while the Qing people themselves were creating poetry and prose, they were also passionate about collecting, organizing, and annotating classical literature from previous dynasties. Many of the surviving works and commentaries on classical Chinese literature, such as the Complete Tang Poems, Complete Tang Texts, Song Poetry Review, Selected Poems of the Yuan Dynasty, and Compendium of Ming Poems, are indebted to the efforts of the Qing. In particular, the establishment of the Sikozensho Library, which compiled a comprehensive collection of all books handed down in China, and the compilation of the Sikozensho Compendium, which included bibliographical considerations for each book, were brilliant achievements of Qing dynasty scholarship.

It seems as if the Qing dynasty had made a final decision on classical Chinese literature, which had long grown in a closed environment. The hard shell of closedness was broken by repeated efforts from Western countries and the efforts of pioneers who had grown tired of the world of the classics, but Huang Zunxian and Liang Qichao, who lived in the late Qing dynasty, prepared the way for the coming literary revolution.

[Sato Tamotsu]

Modern and contemporary literature

Following the defeat in the Opium Wars (1840-1842), China, which had been a closed world up to that point, was exposed to the threat of Western powers, and the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) occurred within the country, and the system itself became unstable. Reflecting this, many trends arose in the intellectual world, from those aiming for reform within the system to those aiming for a revolution to overthrow the Qing Dynasty. In the literary world, movements to break the framework of classical literature finally became popular, such as the "poetry revolution" movement to add new content to poetry, the proposal of political novels by Liang Qichao and others, and the subsequent popularity of novels exposing reality. However, these works were still of old quality as literature, and were still in the early stages of modern and contemporary literature. Among these, Yan Fu's translations of modern Western thought and Lin Shu's translations and adaptations of modern Western novels had a great influence on the formation of intellectual thought thereafter.

[Noboru Maruyama]

A literary revolution begins

Substantial modern and contemporary literature began with the "Literary Revolution" in the late 1910s. This cultural and ideological movement, centered around the magazine New Youth, founded by Chen Duxiu, was anti-Confucian and advocated colloquialism. It was a movement to create cultural substance for the new republic, resisting the backlash that followed the incomplete Xinhai Revolution (1911). Hu Shi, who advocated colloquial literature, Chen Duxiu, who expanded this into a "Literary Revolution" movement, and Lu Xun, who gave substance to the literary revolution with novels such as Diary of a Madman (1918), played major roles. The literary revolution laid the ideological grounds for the May Fourth Movement (a demonstration held by students and people in Beijing on May 4, 1919 in protest against Japan's "Twenty-One Demands" to China during World War I and the situation in which the great powers appeared to ratify them at the Versailles Peace Conference, and the movement that stemmed from this) and the founding of the Chinese Communist Party (1921). Literary organizations such as the Literary Research Association and the Creation Society were born out of this, and the foundations of modern and contemporary literature were laid.

Modern and contemporary Chinese literature has been characterized from the beginning by a strong interest in reality, since it was surrounded by harsh realities such as the crisis the nation found itself in and the poverty of the people. Not only the Literature Research Society, which was called the "Life School," but also the Creative Society, which was called the "Art School" and was strongly colored by romanticism, had a strong interest in reality, and their romanticism was also a form of criticism of reality. Among the Literature Research Society are Shuu Sakujin (Chow Tsouen), Shen Yian Yianping Ping (Mao Dun), Ye Shao Jun, Xie Ping Singh, Xie Ping Singh (Shuu Huashang), and Sozosha are those who include Kakumatsujaku (Quo Moloo), and Yui Tahu (Yuuta Fu).

[Noboru Maruyama]

The establishment of revolutionary literature and the "Sakairen"

From the 1920s' period of decline in the 5/4 movement, the 5/30 Incident (the anti-imperialist movement of the people that took place in Shanghai on May 30, 1925), the period leading to the national revolution led to the differentiation of intellectuals. On the one hand, there was a strong movement to advocate for the union of literature and revolution, and there were many literary scholars who participated in the revolution, including Guo Moo Luo and Mao Duan. The political nature of this literature, despite differences in degree and form, can be said to be the fundamental character of Chinese modern and contemporary literature. On the other hand, both the culturalistic tendencies represented by Hu, and especially the art supreme tendencies seen in poetry, continued to exist as a flow, with complex changes in their degree and role depending on the period.

In 1927, after the national revolution was set to a opposition to the anti-communist coup by Chiang Kai-shek, the Sozosha and Taiyosha sought to repulsion against the Kuomintang's reactionary literature, and in response to Lu Xun and Mao Dynn, they criticized Lu Xun and Mao Dynn as small bull literary scholars, and Lu Xun and others refuted this, and a "revolutionary literary debate" emerged, which led to a movement for new unification, and in 1930, the Chinese Left Writers Federation (Sakai Ren) was established. The Left Writers continued their movement against the Kuomintang's oppression, and gave birth to many young writers. Many of them were middle- and lower-level young people, but in China, where over 90% of the people were unable to read, the meaning behind the voices of the people was largely important, and efforts were made to "senseize literary arts."になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

In addition to the Sakuren, some of the most representative works of modern and contemporary Chinese literature have been written, such as Lao Sha (1936) and Hakin (Patchin) and House (1931). Shen Zhongwen's Bicheng (1934) was also written around this time.

The genres that make up modern and modern Chinese literature had been established almost by the 1930s. In prose, Lu Xun gave birth to the "miscellaneous thoughts" that contained sharp social criticism and civilization criticism, while Zhou Zhengjin and Yuping Poe and others used somewhat literary prose. Lin Yuitang also proposed humorous "small sentences." These were criticized by Lu Xun for their escape from reality, but this genre, which is based on Lu Xun's "miscellaneous thoughts" and Zhou Zhengjin's prose, is a genre with a large number of important meanings, with a diverse range of works that inherit the tradition of Chinese prose.

In the poem, following the attempted poems of the literary revolution, which were not an attempt, were Guo Moo, Wen Yi Tuo, Shu Ziqing, and Xu Zhi Mor, and around this time they featured Ai Qing, Dain Hou Zhu, and Ha Qi Fang.

Theatre was born after the old plays and the "Civilization and Warriors" and from the 1920s to the early 1930s, Tianhan (Tianhan) and Hong Shen were featured, but modern dramas were established in the 1930s with the "Thunderstorm" (1933) of Cao Yue in the 1930s.

[Noboru Maruyama]

Literature under the anti-Japanese war

With the launch of Japan's full-scale invasion of China in 1937, literature also appeared differently depending on the three regions under Japanese occupation, the rule of the Kuomintang and the Communist Party. Also, since 1937, a unique situation occurred in Hong Kong, which was a concession area in Shanghai and the British territory, until the start of the Pacific War, a certain kind of freedom remained.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. Under the rule of Kuomintang, Chongqing (Jukei/Chongqing), Guilin (Kuilin/Kunming), and before the start of the Pacific War, Hong Kong was also the main stage for the writers' activities, with corruption and contradictions in Kuomintang politics becoming the main themes. Guo Moo-raw's historical dramas, including Mao Dun (1941) and Kuyuan (1942), Ba Jin's Cold Night (1945), and Lao Sha's Ichiro Dodong (1945-1950) were the most representative works of this period.

From this period until the postwar period, in Hong Kong and Shanghai, Zhang Ailing (1921-1996) and Su Qing (1914-1982) were popular in many novels and essays. Their work was also low on the continent after the founding of the country, but after the Cultural Revolution, it was also influenced by its popularity in Hong Kong and Taiwan, and was especially welcomed by younger readers.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. The group-created opera "White Hair Woman" (1945) read a wide range of excitement among the people of the Liberation District.

In the reality of the time when the vast people were left behind from culture, it was not just political pressure that allowed literary scholars of the time to accept "lectures," which preached the literature and art that first met the demands at hand, and encouraged intellectuals to look to the vast world outside of them. The slogan "to the public" (Bu Narodo, into the people) was a slogan with necessity in Chinese society, where there was a large cultural disparity between intellectuals and the people, and was already seen as an internal issue for intellectuals from the 5th and 4th period. However, "lectures" also contained the one-sidedness and simplification that was born from the special reality of the liberation zone at the time, and despite this, its limits were not fully recognized, and after the victory of the Chinese revolution, a leaning-making tilt emerged, creating a certain degree of negative consequences in literature that followed.

[Noboru Maruyama]

Literature after the establishment of the People's Republic of China

From the time of the founding of the People's Republic of China, many works were written against land reform and other major social changes and new reality, and many new authors were born, but many authors were criticized for being biased against "lectures," and many authors were ousted. In particular, the "Kofu Fong Incident" in 1955, the "anti-right Struggle" in 1957 and 1958, and the "Cultural Revolution," which continued for ten years from 1965, left a major scar on both the writers and the entire literary world.

During the Cultural Revolution, many literary scholars died amidst fierce criticism and persecution, such as Laoshu and Zhao Juli. Many intellectuals, including writers from workers and peasants, were also subject to criticism and persecution for a variety of reasons, and others were sent to the "Five-Seven Executive Schools" established for each institution (created at the direction of Mao Zedong on May 7, 1966, called an institution for learning and ideological transformation through labor, but were essentially close to a remodeled concentration camp) where they were engaged in labor, and even imprisoned.

In October, shortly after Mao Zedong's death in September 1976, central figures in the Cultural Revolution were arrested, and when the Cultural Revolution ended, as criticism of the Cultural Revolution deepened, the revival of literary and artists who had been ousted during the Cultural Revolution began around the summer of 1977, and by November 1978, most of the people who were considered "right" during the "anti-right struggle" had restored their honor, and Hu Feng, which had been delayed, had recovered his honor in autumn of 1980.

In terms of works, starting with Liu Xinwu (1942-)'s "Chapter (Class Homeroom Teacher)" published in November 1977, a series of works were published that exposed and criticized various aspects of the Cultural Revolution in the early 1980s, and works of this type were called "Scar Literature," under the title of Lu Xinhua (1954-)'s "Scars" (1978). Around this time, authors who were once considered "right-wing" such as Wang Meng (1934-), Liu Bin Yang (1925-2005), Hakuka (1930-), Kao Xiao (1928-), and Zhang Xianliang (1936-), as well as new female writers such as Jinyo (1936-), and Zhang Jie (1937-). Writers who had also continued to work in memoirs and other forms, but many of them suffered physical and mental damage during the Cultural Revolution and ended their lives without showing sufficient work. Among them, Zuisouroku (1979-1986), which Bajin began writing in the late 1970s, attracted widespread sympathy and trust due to his sharp criticism of the social and cultural foundations that created the Cultural Revolution and his deep ideological and human reflection on himself for failing to stop them.

になったんです。 English: The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do.

However, despite its twists, the attempts of literary scholars to capture reality in a deeper and richer way have progressed steadily. It has emerged as an attempt to break the barriers of realism through interest and introduction to 20th century Western methods, including the flow of consciousness. It also shows a strong vitality, with its appearance as an attempt to break the barriers of realism through its interest and introduction to the methods of 20th century Western countries, and sometimes as a "root literature" that follows the trend of "root literature" in America, but includes the pursuit of the negative aspects of China's persistent cultural and social traditions. The latter representatives are Jeong Yi (1947-) and Mo Yian (1955-) and their works have been known and highly regarded overseas, as they were the original works of Chinese films that have attracted world attention since the 1980s.

These literature after the end of the Cultural Revolution were collectively called "New Period Literature" until the early 1990s, and many new authors were born, but the works of writers after the late 1980s were particularly diverse in themes and methods, making it difficult to collective, and they were no longer in the right time to call them "New Period Literature."

In particular, the acceleration and establishment of the policy of "reform and opening up" by Deng Xiaoping's "South Congress" in the spring of 1992, and the rapid development of the market economy are rapidly changing the social significance of literature. The phenomenon of literature's commercialization and subcultureization is also prominent in China, and while popularising popular novels based on new customs and trends, readers' disruption to literature and the decline in sales of literary magazines and works have become a problem.

Of course, since the 1990s, young writers are appearing one after another, and as they are becoming more diverse, it is difficult to make a representative name, but those interested in 21st century China are likely to be expected and uncertain as to what will emerge from this chaos.

However, perhaps because of this chaos, it is true that the world's literary world has attracted unprecedented interest in Chinese literature after the Cultural Revolution. To give a vulgar example, although no Nobel Prize winners were found in Chinese literature, for some time after the Cultural Revolution, the name Ba Jin was published every year, and in the 1990s, the poet Hokutou (1949-), who published works abroad, was often mentioned, but the 2000 Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to playwright and novelist Gao Sindien. Although he was not always a famous writer, including within China, the first Chinese writer to receive the Nobel Prize, perhaps due to the fact that he lived in France since 1988 and acquired French citizenship in 1998, and that his avant-garde methods were particularly easy to gain Western interest and understanding, this may indicate that the era when Chinese literature was often read from interests as a clue to exploring exoticism or social and political trends, and that it is now moving on to an era in which it could be read as the very human literary activities of Chinese writers.

[Noboru Maruyama]

Chinese and Japanese Literature

The Japanese first learned about China through the Korean Peninsula and began negotiations with China.

During the Suiko Morning, the upper-class Japanese intellectuals had a considerable degree of understanding of Chinese culture. Prince Shotoku's "Seventeen-Article Constitution" (604), written in fine Chinese texts, is the most proof of this. Emperor Tenji of the Omi Morning was known as the emperor who, at the same time, greatly encouraged Chinese poetry, but the intake of Chinese culture was not only a practical aspect of politics, but also gradually extended to the artistic side, and knowledge of Chinese literature became essential for upper-class people, and imitation became popular. Knowledge of Chinese poetry and Chinese literature became a barometer of education. During the period of Shigenobu literature in Nara and Heian periods, when it came to literature, it was not just about the practicality of literature, but also about Chinese poetry and Chinese literature.

The first Chinese literature that Japanese people learned was beautiful Southern-style literature, and the best example of this was Monzen. As the knowledge of Tang dynasty literature grew with the dispatch of several envoys to Tang Dynasty, Tang poetry and texts were also imported and became popular among people. In particular, Hakukyo's Hakushimonju's Bai Scripture Collection had a major influence, but the influence of the Bunshu became more prominent after the mid-Heian period. The Tale of Genji, such as the Tale of Genji, was recognized by many Chinese literature, including the Bunshu.

The Japanese who created kana from kanji during the Heian period and created a unique deciphering method called kundoku, but their ability to write Chinese and Chinese poetry texts became relatively weak, but the intake and spread of Chinese literature became easier, and they studied literature from various periods of China with some time lag. For example, the intake of Song and Yuan literature, centered around the five monks of Kyoto during the Kamakura and Muromachi periods, and the acceptance of popular white-length novels of the Ming Dynasty in the Edo period, are immeasurable.

The Meiji period can be said to be a period of conflict between both Chinese and Western literature. The result was that Western literature became a larger entity, and as a result, Chinese literature began to learn from Japanese literature. To be precise, they learned Western literature through modern Japanese literature. From the end of the Meiji period to the Taisho period, many students from Qing came to Japan and absorbed the knowledge of modern Western literature, translated into Japanese. This eventually led to reforms in Chinese literature. Lu Xun was one of the most representative literary figures.

During the Showa period, there was an unfortunate situation in which the exchanges between the two countries were interrupted by the Sino-Japanese War, but it was during this period that Japan began to study Chinese contemporary literature. The works of Lu Xun, Guo Mingyaku and Ikutatsufu were introduced to Japan relatively early, and influenced some Japanese intellectuals and writers, but the study and translation of modern Chinese literature began to begin in earnest after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Furthermore, since the recovery of diplomatic relations between Japan and China in 1972 (Showa 47), exchanges between the two countries became more prosperous, and as the number of mutual international students increased, the exchange between literature and researchers was also actively carried out, and the relationship between Japanese literature and Chinese literature became even closer, and a new phase was reached.

[Sato Tamotsu]

"Okada Masayuki, "History of Japanese Chinese Literature" (1929/Revised Edition, 1954, Yoshikawa Kobunkan)" ▽ "Aoki Masaji, "Introduction to Chinese Literature" (1935, Kobundo)" ▽ "Selected Collection of Chinese Contemporary Literature" (1962-1963, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Kojima Noriyuki, "Annual Japanese Literature and Chinese Literature" 3 volumes (1962-1965, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "Theory of Classical Chinese Literature" 60 volumes (1967-1975, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Full Explanations of Chinese Literature" 33 volumes (1973-1980, Shueisha)" ▽ "Maruyama Noboru, "Theory and Thought of Modern Chinese Literature" (1974, Nichinan Publishing)" ▽ "Maeno Naoaki, "History of Chinese Literature" (1975, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "Linba, "The Museum of Chinese Literature - Poetry and Sutras to the Bamon" (1984, Taishukan Shoten)" ▽ "The Dictionary of Contemporary Chinese Literature" (1985, Tokyodo Publishing)" ▽ "Kuraishi Takeshiro, "The History of Chinese Literature" (1986, Chuokoron Publishing)" ▽ "The Comparative Japanese and Chinese Literature Series" 18 volumes (1986-1994, Kumiko Shoin)" ▽ "Takeuchi Minoru and Hagino Shuji, "The Latest Situation of Chinese Literature: In the Cultural Revolution and Liberalization" (1987, Simul Publishing)" ▽ "The 100 Years of Chinese Literature" (1991, Shinchosha)" ▽ "Kitajima et al., "Chinese Literature of Discovery and Adventure: The Moon on Paper: China's Underground Literature" (1991, Takarajima s.)" ▽になったんです。 English : The first thing you can do is to find the best one to do. "The History of Modern Chinese Literature by Yoshida Tomio (1996, Friends Bookstore)" ▽ "The New History of Chinese Literature - From Early Modern to Modern Times" (1997, Minerva Shobo)" ▽ "Matsueda Shigeo, "The Fun of Chinese Literature" (1998, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Collection of Modern Chinese Short Story" (1998, Heibonsha)" ▽ "Matsui Shozo, Supervised by Maruyama, and edited by Ashida Hajime, Saji Toshihiko, and Shiramizu Noriko, Novels (1)-(3)" (2000-2001, Nigensha)" ▽ "The Road to the Cultural Revolution - Ideas Policy and Intellectuals" (2001, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Ono Shusaku, "The Theory of Books and Chinese Literature" (2001, Kenbun Publishing)" ▽ "Michiko Sato, "Manyoshu and the World of Acceptance of Chinese Literature" (2002, Hanawa Shobo)" ▽ "Lecture of Chinese Literature - Easy to Understand and Interesting" (2002, Chugoku Bookstore)" ▽ "Introduction to Chinese Literature by Yoshikawa Kojiro" (Kodansha Academic Library)" ▽ "Biology of Chinese Writing Artists by Inami Ritsuko" (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Ritsuko Inami Ritsuko's "Hermits of China" (Bunshun Shinsho)"

[References] |郁達夫|袁枚|王安石|王維|王粲|王士禎|欧陽修|艾青|艾蕪|何其芳|郭沫若|楽府|歌謡|漢語|漢字|漢書|干宝|韓愈|宮体詩|玉台新詠|許地山|近体詩|屈原|経書|建安七子|元好問|元詩選|阮籍|高行健|厳復|黄遵憲|江西派|紅楼夢|胡適|胡風|西遊記|沙汀|三国志演義|詩|志怪|史記|詩経|始皇帝|七才子|司馬相如|司馬遷|詩品|謝冰心|周作人|儒家|朱自清|儒林外史|蕭軍|蕭紅|鍾嶸|蒋光慈|書経|徐志摩|徐陵|沈従文|新青年|沈約|水滸伝|世説新語|絶句|全唐詩|全唐文|宋詩鈔|曹植|捜神記|曹操|創造社|曹丕|楚辞|蘇軾|戴望舒|太陽社|竹林の七賢|中国演劇|中国左翼作家連盟|中国神話|趙樹理|陳子昂|陳独秀|丁玲|伝奇|桐城派|陶潜|杜甫|巴金|白毛女|白話|八股文|班固|賦|聞一多|文学革命|文学研究会|文芸講話|文心雕竜|茅盾|変文|駢文|兪平伯|葉紹鈞|揚雄|陸機|陸游|律詩|李白|劉勰|梁啓超|林語堂|老舎|魯迅

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国文学の範囲と特質

一般的にいえば、中国文学は、漢民族を主体とする中国の、漢語とそしてその表記文字の漢字とを用いて表現される文学をいう。もともと中国は漢民族のほかに多くの民族が共存する一種の多種族集合の国家であり、漢語・漢字とは異なる言語・文字を用いる民族が古代から現代に至るまで存在する。そして、それぞれの民族にそれぞれの文学の伝承がないわけではないが、前近代の中国では漢民族の文学以外はほとんど重視されなかったし、重視する必要もなかった。なぜならば、中国歴史の全期間を通じて、文学はもとより、学術・文化の担い手は絶えず漢民族であったからで、たとえ政治的に非漢民族に支配された時期、たとえば元(げん)や清(しん)などの時代にあっても、この基本的な状況に変わりはなかった。ときには非漢民族の文学が漢語・漢字に移されて漢民族の文学に取り込まれることがあったが、それは相対的にごくわずかであり、むしろ逆に漢民族のそれに同化するという過程が普通であった。

　すなわち、中国文学は、漢語・漢字文化の一つとして、漢民族を中心に長い独自の発展を遂げてきたのであり、他の民族、あるいは他国からの影響をほとんど受けることのない孤立した存在であったのである。中国文学が異質の文学の影響を受けて確実に変容するのは20世紀初めの文学革命以後といってよい。古典文学においては、漢字文化圏の朝鮮半島や日本などの近隣諸国に大きな影響を与えこそすれ、それ自体は約3000年にわたり排他的な独自性を保持したという点で、世界文学のなかでもまれな存在である。地理的あるいは民族性など諸原因が考えられるが、この孤立の独自性がその第一の特質である。

　第二の特質は、漢語・漢字を媒体とする文学であるという点で、基本的には単音節語である漢語・漢字、そして表意性豊かな漢字の特性を生かした独自のリズムとイメージをもつ文学形式をつくりだした。だが一方では、膨大な数に上る複雑な漢字を理解するのに多くの努力を必要としたため、漢字が少数の知識人の独占物となり、古典文学の伝承が一部の人々に限られたことは否定できない。この状況の変革もまた文学革命を待たなければならなかった。

　知識人が文学の主たる担い手であったことと、中国文学が概して現実性を尊び、政治的色彩が濃いということとは無縁ではない。この第三の特質の背景には、漢代以降、中国知識人の思想形成の根底となった儒家思想の存在がある。文学革命以前の中国の文学観は、現実政治と密接に関連する儒家思想ぬきでは考えられない。

　そのほか、尚古主義、伝統の重視と、それらの反覆と持続とを第四の特質に数えることができる。以上の特質は、いずれも古典文学を中心に述べたものであり、近・現代文学はそれらの否定から出発したのであるが、文学の政治的側面の重視などは、質的にはまったく異質ではあるものの、共通する性格のようにみえる。

［佐藤　保］

中国文学の歴史

前述したように、中国文学は20世紀初頭の文学革命を境に質的な変化を示している。文学革命前後の清(しん)末までを古典文学、それ以後を近・現代文学と分け、近・現代文学はさらに中華人民共和国成立以後を当代文学とよぶこともあるが、それぞれ便宜的にさらに細かく時期をくぎって述べていくことにしよう。

［佐藤　保］

先秦文学

北の黄河(こうが／ホワンホー)流域と南の長江(ちょうこう／チャンチヤン)（揚子江(ようすこう)）流域に世界最古の文明の一つをつくりあげた中国人の祖先は、農耕生活を送りながら、労働歌ともいうべき歌謡を生み出した。豊作の祈願、収穫の感謝、農作業をしながらの励ましや慰めなど、数多くの歌がうたわれていたに相違ない。いまそれらのほとんどは歴史のかなたに埋没して伝わらないが、古い文献のなかに断片的にみえる記載から、われわれは古代中国人の歌謡のありようを推測することができるのである。他の国々の文学と同じく、中国文学の源もやはり生活に深く根ざした歌謡であった。

　歌謡はもともと、人々に覚えやすい韻律、すなわちリズム（節拍）とライム（押韻）をもつのが普通である。口承に適したその形は、文字が未発達の段階では重要な伝達の形式であった。たとえば、紀元前1300年ころにいまの河南省安陽市に都を置いた殷(いん)の遺跡から大量に発見された卜辞(ぼくじ)（亀甲や獣骨に刻まれた卜占(ぼくせん)のことば）、あるいは前1000年ころ陝西(せんせい)省長安の付近に都を定めた周王朝の建国の記録集『書経(しょきょう)』（尚書(しょうしょ)）など、古い記録や文献のそこかしこに歌謡的な口承の形跡を見て取ることができる。もちろんそれは、後の文学形式としての韻文に比べれば、リズムもライムも単純素朴なものであり、そもそも古代中国人には「文学」をつくるという意識はまったくなく、いわば必要上から生まれた知恵であったのであるが、長い間の経験を蓄積して一つの歌謡形式をつくりあげた。それが中国最古の歌謡集の『詩経(しきょう)』である。『詩経』は北方の黄河流域でうたわれていた歌謡を集めた書物であり、四言(しごん)のリズムを基調とし、様式はさまざまではあるが、押韻を必須(ひっす)の条件とする。ほぼ前600年ころには現存する書物の形ができあがっていたと考えられ、前1000年ころの周の建国のときからの歌謡が収められている。とりわけ『詩経』の収録作品の過半数を占める「国風(こくふう)」の歌は、周王朝各地の民衆の生活ぶりを生き生きと伝え、後世の文学者に少なからぬ影響を与えた。『詩経』が北方の黄河流域の歌謡であるのに対して、南方の長江流域にも『詩経』の歌謡とは異なったリズムをもつ独特の韻文が発達していた。『詩経』のそれに比較してはるかに複雑な形式をもつ南方歌謡は、当時その地方が楚(そ)とよばれていたのにちなんで、のちに「楚辞(そじ)」と称されるようになったが、それが明確に文学史に登場するのは先秦(せんしん)時期の最後、戦国時代の末期に屈原(くつげん)が出現してからである。屈原の作品は彼の悲劇的な生涯から生み出され、中国文学が初めてもった個性的な文学であった。

　この時期、主として春秋時代に成立した周王朝の記録や教訓書――儒家によって「経書(けいしょ)」とよばれる一群の書物――および戦国時代の諸子百家の活躍から生まれた多くの書物は、いずれも政治的あるいは教訓的な目的によって編まれたもので、文学とは直接のかかわりをもたない。『詩経』もまた儒家の人々に経書として尊重され、一種の政治的・倫理的な意味、つまり民謡は政治の直接的な反映であり、政治を考えるための貴重な情報源であること、ひいては文学と政治とは切り離せなく、倫理的道徳とも不可分の関係にあるという観念を付与することになった。この儒家的な文学観が以後の中国文学を長く支配したのである。しかしながら、それらの経書、とくに戦国諸子の書物に顕著にみられる明晰(めいせき)な論理性、そして説得のための比喩(ひゆ)の技巧は、後世の文学の修辞の源泉として大きな意味をもっていた。

　中国の神話・伝説の乏しさはしばしば指摘され、それは非現実的なものを極力排除した儒家の責任に帰せられているし、おそらくそれらの指摘は正しい。しかし近年、神話研究者によって中国古代神話の発掘と整理が進められており、それらの研究によれば、かならずしも他の国に比べて乏しいわけではない。すでに、多くの書物に断片的に伝えられている神話・伝説を丹念に拾い集めて、農耕民族としての古代中国人の生活に根ざした空想世界が、生き生きと浮かび上がりつつある。

［佐藤　保］

秦・漢文学

秦が天下を統一した紀元前221年から漢の滅亡する紀元後220年までの約400年の時期――この時期の文学の特色は、「賦(ふ)」の成立と「楽府(がふ)」の流行、そして「史伝文学」が生まれたことである。強力な軍事力を背景に戦国諸侯を次々に征服し、天下の統一を果たした秦の始皇帝は、政治体制の変革と同時に文字や度量衡などをも統一して、その後の文化および社会経済の統一的な発展の基礎をつくったが、あまりにも急激な変革は結局政治の破綻(はたん)をきたし、秦王朝は短命に終わった。秦の文学にはとくにみるべきものはなく、文学の大きな進展がみられるのは、次の漢王朝に入ってからである。

　漢の人々が愛好したのは南方の楚辞の歌謡で、屈原の後を継ぐ多くの作家が現れた。そして、その楚辞の歌謡からより修辞にくふうを凝らし華麗な言語を駆使する新しい文学形式が生まれた。「賦(ふ)」あるいは「辞賦(じふ)」ともよばれる形式がそれである。壮大な帝国のさまざまな事象を描写する長編の叙事的韻文は、大帝国をつくりあげた漢の王朝文学として大いにもてはやされ、帝国が最大になった武帝のときに活躍した司馬相如(しばしょうじょ)によってその文学的な地位が確立した。賦は前後両漢を通じて流行し、揚雄(ようゆう)、班固(はんこ)らの優れた作家が現れて、内容と形式にいっそうのくふうが加えられていった。

　一方、当時、民間には『詩経』の歌謡や楚辞とは違った新しい歌謡が流行していた。この種の歌謡を「楽府」というのは、当時その採集と整理にあたった役所の名にちなむ。知識人が楽府に関心を寄せ、やがて自分たちも模倣し始めたのは、前述の儒家的な文学観に由来するのはもとよりとして、なによりもまずその新鮮な魅力にひかれたためであろう。楽府のメロディーは時代が下るとともに忘れられ、消滅していったし、逆に新しいメロディーも次々に生まれていったが、楽府の愛好ははるか後世にまで続き、しかも詩歌の革新のときにはいつも漢代楽府が想起され、それへの復帰が叫ばれたのである。

　楽府の形式は多様であり、長短句の混ざった複雑な形をもつものが少なくない。しかしそのなかで五言(ごごん)のリズムがとくに人々に好まれて、やがて五言詩の形式ができあがった。そのもっとも初期の作品が「古詩十九首」である。

　この時期、散文の成長も忘れてはならない。先秦時期の多くの文献はほとんど漢の時期に整理され、再編され、また注釈が書かれたが、戦国時代の諸子百家によってくふうされてきた散文は、この時期に一段と進展した。その代表的なものが、「史伝文学」ともよばれる前漢の司馬遷(しばせん)の『史記(しき)』と後漢の班固の『漢書(かんじょ)』などの歴史記述である。とくに前者は、歴史書として単なる事実の記録にとどまらず、深い人間洞察に基づき歴史のなかの人間像を生き生きと描き出すことに成功した。

［佐藤　保］

魏・晋・南北朝文学

後漢(ごかん)末の政治的混乱から魏(ぎ)・呉(ご)・蜀(しょく)の三国に分裂した三国時代、中国の北半分を異民族が支配した南北朝を経て、隋(ずい)が全国を統一する589年までの400年ほどが、この時期である。相次ぐ政権の交代と異民族の侵攻とによって生じた社会不安のなかで、人々は苦難の日々を送った時期ではあったが、文学のうえでは五言詩や楽府の流行、駢文(べんぶん)とよばれる美文体の完成、さらには独立した文学意識の芽生えなど、この時期の収穫はけっして少なくない。

　魏の曹操(そうそう)・曹丕(そうひ)・曹植(そうしょく)の曹氏父子は、政治のみならず、文化の中心にも位置していて、彼らの周囲に数多くの文学者が集まってきた。曹氏父子を中心とする人々の関心事は、前代におこった五言詩に自分たちの感情を盛り込むことにあり、修辞に富む個性的な叙情詩をつくりだすことに成功した。曹氏父子とともに五言詩の革新に功績のあった王粲(おうさん)・陳琳(ちんりん)（？―217）など7人の文学者を「建安七子(けんあんしちし)」とよぶ。

　五言詩の流れは、その後、思索的な内容を「詠懐詩(えいかいし)」に歌った「竹林の七賢(ちくりんのしちけん)」の一人である魏の阮籍(げんせき)、田園の美を発見した晋(しん)の陶潜(とうせん)（あるいは陶淵明(えんめい)）など、優れたわずかな詩人たちの努力によって詩的世界を広めはしたが、漢民族が江南に逐(お)われた南朝の時期には、貴族や豪族が女性の美しさをうたう「宮体詩(きゅうたいし)」と山水自然の美を描写する「山水詩(さんすいし)」を大量につくり、詩句を練り上げてもっぱら言語表現の美しさを追求することになった。ただそのなかで、詩の音楽性に注目した斉(せい)の沈約(しんやく)らの韻律の探求が、やがて唐代に入って律詩(りっし)や絶句(ぜっく)などのいわゆる「近体詩(きんたいし)」（今体詩）を生み出すのである。

　このような詩の修辞化の傾向は、当時、賦から派生した修辞的な美文の駢文の流行と軌を一にする。耽美(たんび)的な美文学への関心は、梁(りょう)の昭明太子(しょうめいたいし)の編んだ『文選(もんぜん)』の詩文の選択、同じ梁の徐陵(じょりょう)の『玉台新詠(ぎょくだいしんえい)』の艶詩の収集に反映されている。

　楽府の流行もまたこの時期の特色の一つであるが、男女の恋愛など繊細な情感を歌った南朝楽府に対して、北朝の楽府は素朴で力強く、長編の叙事詩的な作品もつくられた。

　この時期の注目すべき事柄として、文学に独自の価値を認め文学に携わる意義を自覚する言論が現れたことである。曹丕の「典論論文」あるいは晋の陸機(りくき)の「文賦(ぶんぷ)」などは、従来かならずしも重視されていなかった文学の独立宣言ともいうべきものであろう。この空気を受けて、梁(りょう)の時代には中国最初の文学評論である劉勰(りゅうきょう)の『文心雕竜(ぶんしんちょうりょう)』、詩論である鍾嶸(しょうこう)の『詩品(しひん)』が書かれた。

　またこの時期には、人々の行動や珍しい事柄に対する関心が高まり、有名人の逸話を記録した『世説新語(せせつしんご)』（宋(そう)・劉義慶(りゅうぎけい)、403―444）、民間に伝わる怪奇な話を集めた『捜神記(そうじんき)』（晋・干宝(かんぽう)）など、多くの書物が現れた。後者の類(たぐい)の話を「志怪(しかい)小説」とよぶ。

［佐藤　保］

隋・唐・五代文学

約290年続いた唐代を挟んで、前後400年ほどのこの時期は、中国詩の最盛期である。南北に分裂していた中国を再統一した隋(ずい)王朝は、南朝文化の華美を是正しようと努力したものの、さしたる効果をみないまま短命に終わり、唐の初期にまで南朝文化はそのまま持ち越された。

　文学の状況もまた同様で、初唐期はおおむね南朝風の詩文がもてはやされた時期である。しかししだいに新しい時代の新しい文学の要求が強まってきて、詩の革新が行われた。初唐期末の陳子昂(ちんすごう)が復古を唱えて南朝の詩の無内容な修辞的傾向を批判し、その皮切りとなった。それを受けて盛唐期には、王維(おうい)、李白(りはく)、杜甫(とほ)などの優れた才能をもつ詩人たちがそれぞれ個性的な作品をつくり、中国の詩は飛躍的な進展を遂げた。また、南朝以来の積み重ねられてきた韻律のくふうから「近体詩」の詩形が完成し、それまでの詩と明瞭(めいりょう)に区別されるようになったのも、この盛唐期である。唐以前の詩を「古体詩」とよぶが、唐以後は「近体」と「古体」の二つが併存することになった。

　盛唐期を過ぎて唐王朝の勢力がしだいに下降をたどってくるにしたがい、詩の活力もまた下降に向かい、細やかな修辞的表現のほうに詩人たちの関心が向いていった。このような詩の流れに対して、中唐期、白居易(はくきょい)がかつての漢代楽府の生気に着目して「新楽府」を創作し、詩の革新を唱えた。同じころ、韓愈(かんゆ)は、南朝以来ますます美文化の色彩を強めていた駢文に反対し、「古文」を主張して文体の改革に乗り出した。白居易と韓愈の主張は詩文の違いはあっても、底を流れる復古の精神は一脈相通ずるものがあったのである。だが、詩文の耽美化の傾向はもはや押しとどめようもなく、中唐期から晩唐期にかけては繊細な唯美的風潮が一般的となった。詩人たちはむしろ、中唐期ころから民間に広まってきた新しい叙情歌曲の「詞(し)」にしだいに興味を示すようになり、その創作に努力する者が現れてきたのである。詞は五代の時期に大いに発展し、次の宋代では主要な文学形式の一つとなった。

　唐代ではさらに、「伝奇(でんき)小説」とよばれる小説が流行したことでも知られている。それは南朝の「志怪小説」とは違って、虚構性を意識した一種の創作物語であり、作者のほとんどは知識人で、きちんとした文言(ぶんげん)文（文語体）で書かれているところから、韓愈の古文運動ともかかわりをもっていたのである。また、唐代における仏教の浸透を反映して、一般民衆に仏教の教義をわかりやすく語り聞かせるための口承文芸である「変文(へんぶん)」が生まれた。それは俗講(ぞくこう)ともよばれ、俗講僧がその語り手であった。20世紀の初め、西の砂漠の中の町、敦煌(とんこう)で大量の貴重な文書が発見されたなかに多くの「変文」の写本が含まれていて、その実体が明らかになった。

［佐藤　保］

宋・金文学

北宋(ほくそう)、そして北半分を金(きん)に占領された南宋の300年余りのこの時期は、中国の古典文学の一つの転換期であった。

　まずは文学者の社会的地位の変化である。それまでも詩をつくり文を書く才能は知識人に必須の教養として重視され、優れた才能は人々の高い評価を受けてきた。とくに唐代では科挙の試験に詩の科目が取り入れられ、文学的才能の有無は官界入りを左右することにもなった。しかしながら唐代では、文学的才能の評価と社会的な地位はかならずしも一致しない。文学の才能が出世を約束していたはずの科挙においても、卓抜な才能はしばしば理解されずに無視されがちであった。多くの唐詩人の不遇の一生が、そのなによりの証拠である。それは、旧来の門閥貴族や豪族が政治の主導権を握っていた社会では、文学に対する評価基準が相対的に低かったからにほかならない。状況の変化は、盛唐期の末に起こった安史(あんし)の乱（755～763）以後、貴族階級の没落とともに徐々に生じ、宋に入って文官優遇の政治体制がとられると決定的となった。科挙受験者の文学の才能はいわば正当に評価され、社会的地位も保証されるようになったのである。北宋の中期、欧陽修(おうようしゅう)をはじめ王安石、蘇軾(そしょく)など、文学的才能の豊かな新興知識階級の人々が、政界においても活躍するようになった。

　彼らが開拓した宋詩の世界は、唐詩が情熱的で感覚的な発想や表現を尊んだのに比べて、理性的であり、冷静な日常的観察のなかから淡々と身辺に起こるさまざまな事柄を歌った。なかには南宋の陸游(りくゆう)のように、祖国の屈辱的な状況を情熱的に歌った人もなかったわけではないが、北宋の末におこった「江西派(こうせいは)」の詩風は平易を旨として広く人々に受け入れられ、詩の大衆化に大きな役割を果たした。宋詩は一般に感情表現において抑制が働いていて、「理知」と「平淡」をその特色とする。また、詩人たちが結社的結合を強めていったこと、詩と同時に詞が盛んにつくられるようになったことなどは、北宋から南宋に入ってより顕著となった傾向であり、やがて南宋のなかばには詩を売って生計をたてる職業詩人が出現した。文は、この時期、韓愈の提唱した古文が主流である。

　元好問(げんこうもん)に代表される金の文学状況も、ほぼ宋のそれに等しいが、漢民族の抑圧の状況を反映してしばしば感情的な唐詩への接近を示す。

　次に注目すべき文学の転換は、大衆文芸ともいうべき通俗文学の発達である。宋代の江南を中心とした社会経済の発展は都市の消費経済を飛躍的に進展させ、市場が大いににぎわった。その結果、都会の市場の盛り場には、講談の一種の「説話(せつわ)」、歌舞劇、影絵芝居や人形劇、曲芸などの種々の大衆芸能が行われ、人々を楽しませた。それらが次の時期に入ると通俗文学として大きく成長することになる。

［佐藤　保］

元・明・清文学

約600年にわたるこの時期は、古典文学の最後の時期である。詩文、それに詞の形式にはもはや新たな発展はなかったものの、作者の層は一般庶民をも含んで大いに広がった。詩はしばらく宋詩の影響が持続するが、明(みん)代に前後七子(しちし)（七才子）の人々が盛唐詩に学ぶことを主唱し、ふたたび唐詩風の詩が流行した。しかし、清(しん)朝の末には宋詩風が一時復活する。総体的に宋代までみられた生気は薄れてゆき、清朝の王士禛(おうししん)（あるいは王士禎(おうしてい)）、袁枚(えんばい)など優れた叙情の詩人も現れなかったわけではないが、平板化と形式化の流れは、すでに抑えようがなかった。文もやはり、全般的に魅力に乏しい。明代に流行した形式主義的な「八股文(はっこぶん)」の弊害を救うために清朝の人々によって復古的な「桐城派(とうじょうは)」古文が主唱され、広く盛行したものの、清末にはそれ自体が形式化のそしりを受け、文学革命では打倒の対象とされたのである。むしろ、実りが多かったのは通俗文学のほうで、「元曲(げんきょく)」あるいは「元雑劇(げんざつげき)」とよばれる元代の戯曲、そして明代の長編白話(はくわ)小説がそれである。元曲はもともと宋・金の歌劇に由来する演劇であるが、明・清にはさらに「伝奇」とよばれる戯曲へと進展した。『水滸伝(すいこでん)』『三国志演義(さんごくしえんぎ)』『西遊記(さいゆうき)』などの明代の長編小説は、いずれも口語（白話）で書かれているところに特色があり、これらもまた宋代の語り物「説話」に淵源(えんげん)をもつ。これらの長編小説をつくりだした経験が、やがて清朝の『紅楼夢(こうろうむ)』や『儒林外史(じゅりんがいし)』などを生み出すもととなった。古典文学の最後の時期である清朝は、きわめて学術的な雰囲気の色濃い時期でもあった。そのため、清人は自ら詩文の創作にあたるかたわら、前代までの古典文学の収集整理と注釈の作業に情熱を傾けたのである。『全唐詩(ぜんとうし)』『全唐文(ぜんとうぶん)』『宋詩鈔(そうししょう)』『元詩選(げんしせん)』『明詩綜(みんしそう)』など、現存する中国古典文学の諸作品および注釈は、清人の努力に負うところが少なくない。とりわけ、中国に伝わる書物全体を総合的にまとめる四庫全書(しこぜんしょ)館を開設し、それぞれの書物に書誌学的考察を加えた『四庫全書総目提要(しこぜんしょそうもくていよう)』の編纂(へんさん)は、清朝学術の輝かしい成果であった。

　清朝の人々は、さながら、長く閉鎖的に成長してきた中国古典文学の最後の総決算を行ったかにみえる。固い閉鎖の殻を破ったのは、たび重なる西欧諸外国からの働きかけと、古典の世界に飽き足らなくなった先覚者の努力であったが、清末の黄遵憲(こうじゅんけん／ホワンツンシエン)、梁啓超(りょうけいちょう／リヤンチーチャオ)などが、きたるべき文学革命の準備をしたのである。

［佐藤　保］

近・現代文学

アヘン戦争（1840～1842）の敗北を契機に、それまで閉鎖された天下であった中国は、西欧列強の脅威にさらされ、国内でも太平天国（1851～1864）が起こるなど、体制そのものの動揺が顕著になった。それを反映して、思想界では、体制内の変革から清朝打倒の革命を目ざすものまで、多くの潮流が相次いでおこった。文学界でも詩に新しい内容を盛る「詩界革命」の運動や、梁啓超らによる政治小説の提唱、それを受けた現実暴露小説の流行など、古典文学の枠を破る動きがようやく盛んとなった。ただこれらは、まだ文学としての質は古く、近・現代文学への胎動にとどまっていた。このなかで、厳復(げんふく／イエンフー)による西洋近代思想の翻訳、林紓(りんじょ／リンシュー)による西洋近代小説の翻訳・翻案は、その後の知識人の思想形成に大きな影響を及ぼした。

［丸山　昇］

文学革命始まる

実質的な近・現代文学の出発は、1910年代後半の「文学革命」に始まる。陳独秀(ちんどくしゅう／チェントゥーシウ)の創刊した雑誌『新青年』を中心に、反儒教と口語文提唱を柱として展開された文化・思想運動で、不完全な革命であった辛亥(しんがい)革命（1911）以後の反動に抗し、新共和国の文化的実質をつくりだす動きでもあった。口語文学を提唱した胡適(こてき／フーシー)、それを「文学革命」の運動に広げた陳独秀、『狂人日記』（1918）をはじめとする小説で、文学革命に実質を与えた魯迅(ろじん／ルーシュン)らの役割が大きい。文学革命は、五・四運動（第一次世界大戦中に日本が行った「対中国二十一か条要求」とそれをベルサイユ平和会議で、列強が追認しそうな情勢に抗議して、1919年5月4日に北京の学生・民衆が行ったデモおよびそれに端を発した運動）や中国共産党成立（1921）を思想的に準備し、文学研究会、創造社などの文学団体がこのなかで生まれて、近・現代文学の基礎がつくられた。

　中国の近・現代文学は、民族の置かれた危機的状況や民衆の貧困など厳しい現実に取り巻かれていたため、当初から現実への強い関心を特色とした。「人生派」とよばれた文学研究会だけでなく、「芸術派」とよばれロマンチシズムの色の濃い創造社にしても、現実への関心は強く、そのロマンチシズムは現実への批判の変形でもあった。文学研究会系に周作人(しゅうさくじん／チョウツオレン)、沈雁冰(しんがんひょう／シエンイエンピン)（茅盾(ぼうじゅん／マオトウ)）、葉紹鈞(ようしょうきん／イエシャオジュン)、謝冰心(しゃひょうしん／シエピンシン)、許地山(きょちざん／シュイディシャン)（落華生）ら、創造社に郭沫若(かくまつじゃく／クオモールオ)、郁達夫(いくたつふ／ユイターフー)らがいる。

［丸山　昇］

革命文学と「左連」の成立

1920年代なかばにかけての五・四運動退潮期から、五・三〇事件（1925年5月30日に上海(シャンハイ)で起こった民衆の反帝国主義運動）を経て、国民革命に至る時期には、知識人の分化が進んだ。一方では、文学と革命との結合を提唱する動きが強くなり、郭沫若、茅盾ら自ら革命に参加した文学者も少なくない。このような文学の政治性は、程度と形式の差こそあれ、中国近・現代文学の根本的性格ともいいうるものである。一方、胡適らに代表される文化主義的傾向も、とくに詩にみられる芸術至上的傾向も、時期によりその程度と役割を複雑に変化させながら、一つの流れとして存在を続けた。

　1927年、蒋介石(しょうかいせき／チヤンチエシー)の反共クーデターで国民革命が挫折(ざせつ)したのち、国民党の反動化への反発として、創造社、太陽社などがプロレタリア文学を唱えた。彼らは魯迅や茅盾に小ブル文学者という非難を浴びせ、魯迅らもこれに反論して「革命文学論戦」が起こったが、これを通じて、新たな統一を求める動きが生まれ、1930年、中国左翼作家連盟（左連）が成立した。左連は国民党の弾圧に抗しつつ運動を続け、多くの若い作家を生んだ。彼らは多くが中・下層知識青年だったが、9割を超える民衆が字が読めなかった中国で、民衆にかわって声をあげた意味は大きく、「文芸大衆化」の努力もなされた。その運動は国民党の弾圧に妨げられ、当時の中国共産党の極左路線の影響もあって、豊かな作品は数多くは生まれなかったし、民衆に直接広く受け入れられるには至らなかったが、1930年代の文学の強力な流れを形成し、また1940年代以降の中国文学の中心となった作家・批評家の多くが、このなかから生まれた。左連の作品としては、頂点に茅盾『子夜(しや)』（1933）があげられるほか、蒋光慈(しょうこうじ／ジアンクワンツー)、丁玲(ていれい／ティンリン)、艾蕪(がいぶ／アイウー)、沙汀(さてい／シャーティン)などがあり、また蕭軍(しょうぐん／シヤオチュン)、蕭紅(しょうこう／シヤオホン)など、東北出身で日本支配下の「満州国」から本土に逃れた作家の作品も、流れとしてはこのなかに位置づけられる。

　左連のほかでも、老舎(ろうしゃ／ラオショー)『駱駝祥子(ロートシアンツ)』（1936）、巴金(はきん／パーチン)『家』（1931）など、中国近・現代文学を代表する作品のいくつかが書かれた。沈従文(しんじゅうぶん／シェンツォンウェン)『辺城』（1934）もこのころの作品である。

　中国近・現代文学を構成する各ジャンルも、ほぼ1930年代までに確立した。散文では、魯迅が鋭い社会批判、文明批評を内容とする「雑感」を生んだのに対して、周作人、兪平伯(ゆへいはく／ユーピンポー)らは、やや文人風の散文をよくした。林語堂(りんごどう／リンユイタン)もユーモアをもった「小品文」を提唱した。これらは、魯迅に現実からの逃避の側面を批判されたが、魯迅の「雑感」と周作人の散文を両極とするこのジャンルには、中国文学の散文の伝統を受け継ぐ多様な作品が生まれ、重要な意味をもつジャンルである。

　詩では、文学革命期の、試みの域を出なかった白話詩に続いて、1920年代に郭沫若、聞一多(ぶんいった／ウェンイートゥオ)、朱自清(しゅじせい／チューツーチン)、徐志摩(じょしま／シュイチーモー)らがいたが、このころ艾青(がいせい／アイチン)、戴望舒(たいぼうじょ／タイワンシュー)、何其芳(かきほう／ホーチーファン)らが出ている。

　演劇は、旧劇から「文明戯」を経て「話劇」が生まれ、1920年代から1930年代初頭にかけて田漢(でんかん／ティエンハン)、洪深(こうしん／ホンシェン)が出ていたが、1930年代なかばの曹禺(そうぐう／ツァオユー)の『雷雨』（1933）などによって近代劇が確立した。

［丸山　昇］

抗日戦下の文学

1937年、日本の全面的中国侵略の開始とともに、文学も、日本占領下、国民党治下、共産党治下の三つの地域によって、それぞれ異なった様相を示すことになる。また、1937年以降も太平洋戦争開戦まで、上海の租界地区や英領だった香港(ホンコン)には、ある種の自由が残ったことなど、独特の状況が生じていた。

　日本占領下に残った文学者の代表が周作人で、その動機と行動は単純ではないが、しだいに対日協力の度を深め、戦後「漢奸(かんかん)」として罪に問われた。また、本土に逃れた「東北作家」のほかに、古丁(こてい／クーティン)（1914―1964）、梁山丁(りょうさんてい／リァンシャンティン)（1914―1997）など、「満州国」にとどまって作家活動を続けた者もいた。状況の複雑さに伴って、彼らの仕事もその意図、結果もさまざまだったが、その多くはなんらかの形で日本の文化政策との接触ももたざるをえなかったため、人民共和国建国後は、否定的に評価されたり、無視あるいはタブー視される傾きが強かったが、文化大革命（以下文革と略称）後の1980年代以降、政治的にも文学的にも、複雑さをそのまま客観的にとらえ、学問的に検討しようという流れが強まっている。国民党治下では、重慶(じゅうけい／チョンチン)、桂林(けいりん／コイリン)、昆明(こんめい／クンミン)などが、また太平洋戦争開戦前には香港も、作家のおもな活動の舞台となり、国民党政治の腐敗・矛盾などがおもなテーマとなった。茅盾『腐触(ふしょく)』（1941）、『屈原』（1942）をはじめとする郭沫若の史劇、巴金『寒夜』（1945）、老舎『四世同堂』（1945～1950）などがこの時期を代表する作品である。

　この時期から戦後にかけて、香港・上海では、張愛玲(ちょうあいれい／チャンアイリン)（1921―1996）、蘇青(そせい／スーチン)（1914―1982）等が、多くの小説・エッセイで人気をよんだ。彼らの仕事も、建国後の大陸での評価は低かったが、文革後、過去の評価への反発もあり、香港・台湾での人気の影響も受けて、とくに若い読者に歓迎されている。

　根拠地あるいは解放区といわれた共産党治下では、文学の様相は大きく変わった。根拠地への大量の知識人の移動は、客観条件として知識人と民衆の距離を飛躍的に縮める一方、「解放区」の矛盾に対する知識人の批判的発言も増え、古い幹部や軍と知識人の間の矛盾を顕在化させた。その状況をおもに知識人の意識変革・思想改造を求めることによって解決する理論として出されたのが、延安(えんあん／イエンアン)文芸座談会における毛沢東(もうたくとう／マオツォートン)の「文芸講話」である。これは、文学が人民に奉仕すべきこと、当時の現実のなかでは普及第一であることなどを説き、文学者がまず大衆のなかに入ること、現にある大衆のために書くこと、を求めその鍵(かぎ)は知識人の思想改造にあることを強調したのものだった。これ以後、この方向に沿って生まれた文学が「人民文学」とよばれる。最初にその代表的作家と目されたのが趙樹理(ちょうじゅり／チャオシューリー)である。また集団創作の歌劇『白毛女』（1945）は、解放区の民衆の広い感動をよんだ。

　広大な民衆が文化から取り残されていた当時の現実のなかで、なによりもまず彼らの目前の要求にこたえる文学・芸術を、と説き、知識人に自らの外の広大な世界に目を向けるよう促した「講話」を、当時の文学者に受け入れさせたのは、政治的圧力ばかりではなかった。「到民間去」（ブ・ナロード、民衆の中へ）というスローガンは、知識人と民衆との文化的格差が大きかった中国社会では、必然性をもったスローガンであり、すでに五・四時期から知識人の内的な課題として意識されていたものでもあった。しかし「講話」は、やはり当時の解放区という特殊な現実から生まれたことによる一面性、単純化を含んでおり、それにもかかわらずその限界は十分に認識されず、さらに中国革命の勝利後、これを絶対化する傾きが生まれて、その後の文学に少なからぬマイナスを生んだ。

［丸山　昇］

中華人民共和国成立後の文学

中華人民共和国建国前後から、土地改革その他の大きな社会的変動や新しい現実を背景とする作品が多く書かれ、少なからぬ新作家も生まれたが、一方「講話」からの偏向として批判され失脚した作家も多く、とくに1955年の「胡風(こふう／フーフォン)事件」、1957、1958年の「反右派闘争」と、1965年から10年間続いた「文化大革命」は、作家個々人にも、文学界全体にも大きな傷を残した。

　文革中、老舎、趙樹理など、激しい非難と迫害のなかで死んだ文学者も少なくなかった。また知識人の多くは、労働者・農民出身の作家も含めて、さまざまな理由で批判と迫害の対象となり、機関ごとに設けられた「五七幹部学校」（1966年5月7日の毛沢東の指示によってつくられ、労働を通じての学習・思想改造の機関と称したが、実質的には形を変えた強制収容所に近かった）に送られて労働に従事し、さらには投獄されたものもいた。

　1976年9月の毛沢東の死後間もない10月、文革派の中心人物だった江青(こうせい／チヤンチン)・張春橋(ちょうしゅんきょう／チャンチュンチヤオ)・姚文元(ようぶんげん／ヤオウェンユアン)・王浩文(おうこうぶん／ワンホンウェン)（「四人組」とよばれた）が逮捕され、文革が終了すると、文革路線への批判の深化につれて、1977年夏ごろから文革中失脚していた文学者・芸術家たちの復権が始まり、1978年11月までには「反右派闘争」時に「右派」とされた人々のほとんどが名誉回復、遅れていた胡風も1980年秋には、名誉回復した。

　作品面では、1977年11月に発表された劉心武(りゅうしんぶ／リウシンウー)（1942―　）『班主任（クラス担任）』を皮切りに1980年代初頭にかけて、文革の諸側面を暴露・批判する作品が相次いで発表され、この種の作品は、廬新華(ろしんか／ルーシンホワ)（1954―　）『傷痕(しょうこん)』（1978）の題名をとって、「傷痕文学」とよばれた。このころは、王蒙(おうもう／ワンモン)（1934―　）、劉賓雁(りゅうひんがん／リウピンイェン)（1925―2005）、白樺(はくか／バイホワ)（1930―　）、高暁声(こうぎょうせい／カオシヤオシヨン)（1928―　）、張賢良(ちょうけんりょう／チャンシエンリヤン)（1936―　）など、かつて「右派」とされた作家たちと、諶容(じんよう／シェンロン)（1936―　）、張潔(ちょうけつ／チャンチエ)（1937―　）など女性の新作家が活発な仕事をみせた。また文革以前からの作家も回想録その他の形で仕事を続けたが、文革中に心身を傷めて、十分な仕事をみせぬままに生涯を閉じた者も多かった。そのなかで巴金が1970年代末から書き始めた『随想録』（1979～1986）は、文革を生み出した社会的・文化的基盤に対する鋭い批判と、それを阻止できなかった自身への思想的・人間的反省の深さで、広い共感と信頼を集めた。

　文革への批判は、さらに「反右派闘争」へ、さらにそれ以前の政治・思想キャンペーンへとさかのぼり、深化する傾向をみせた。これらは一方では文学界全体を活性化したが、他方それに反発し危惧を感ずる層をも刺激し、両者のせめぎ合いは、複雑・隠微な底流として長く続いた。1981年の白樺批判（白樺が1979年に発表した『苦恋』をもとに制作された映画『太陽和人（太陽と人）』に対して、鄧小平(とうしょうへい／トンシヤオピン)の「祖国を否定的に描いている」という批判を契機に起こった白樺攻撃。1981年11月白樺の自己批判で事件は終息した）、1983年の「精神汚染一掃」の提唱、1989年6月の「第二次天安門事件」後の「ブルジョア自由化批判」の強調などが、その表面化したものであった。

　しかし、より深くより豊かに現実をとらえようとする文学者たちの試みは、曲折を経ながらも着実に進んだ。それはときには「意識流」（意識の流れ）をはじめとする20世紀欧米の方法への関心と紹介を通じて、リアリズム偏重の壁を破ろうとする試みとして現れ、またときには、アメリカにおける「ルーツ文学」の流行にならいながら中国の根強い文化的・社会的伝統の負の側面への追求を含んだ「尋根文学(じんこんぶんがく)」として現れるなど、強靭(きょうじん)な生命力を示している。後者の代表的存在が、鄭義(ていぎ／チョンイー)（1947―　）、莫言(ばくげん／モーイエン)（1955―　）などで、彼らの作品は1980年代以後、世界の注目を引くようになった中国映画の原作となったこともあって、外国にも知られ、高い評価を受けている。

　これら文革終了後の文学は、1990年代初頭ごろまでは「新時期文学」と総称され、新作家も数多く生まれたが、とくに1980年代後半以後の作家たちの作品はテーマも手法も多様で一括しがたく、もはや「新時期文学」の呼称もふさわしくない時期に入っている。

　とくに1992年春、鄧小平の『南巡談話』による「改革・開放」政策の加速と定着、市場経済の急速な発展は、文学の社会的存在意義をも急速に変えつつある。文学の商業主義化・サブカルチャー化の現象は中国でも顕著で、新しい風俗・流行等を題材にした通俗小説が人気をよぶ一方、読者の文学離れ、文学雑誌、作品の売れ行きの減少などが、問題になっている。

　もちろん1990年代以降現在でも、若い作家は次々に現れており、しかも多様化しているだけに代表的な名をあげることにも困難を感ずるほどだが、この混沌(こんとん)のなかからどんなものが生まれるかが、21世紀の中国に関心をもつ者の期待と不安であろう。

　ただ、そうした混沌のゆえか、文革後の中国文学に、世界の文学界が従来にない関心を寄せているのは事実である。卑俗な例をあげると、中国文学にはノーベル文学賞受賞者は出ていなかったが、文革後しばらくの間は、巴金の名が毎年下馬評に上り、1990年代には外国で作品を発表している詩人北島(ほくとう／ベイダオ)（1949―　）の名がしばしばあがったが、2000年ノーベル文学賞が劇作家・小説家の高行健(こうこうけん／ガオシンヂエン)に与えられた。中国国内を含めてかならずしも有名作家ではなかった彼が、中国人作家で最初にノーベル賞を受けたことの背景には、彼が1988年以降フランスに在住して1998年にはフランス国籍も取得したこと、とくに彼の前衛的方法が欧米の関心と理解を得やすかったことなどの条件もあったろうが、中国文学が、ともするとエキゾチシズムあるいは社会的政治的動向を探る手がかりとしての関心から読まれがちであった時代が過ぎ去り、中国の作家たちの人間的文学的営みそのものとして読まれうる時代に移りつつあることを示すものかもしれない。

［丸山　昇］

中国文学と日本文学

日本人は初め、朝鮮半島を通じて中国を知り、中国との交渉を始めた。

　推古(すいこ)朝では、日本の上流知識階級の中国文化理解の程度がかなり進んでいた。りっぱな中国文で書かれた聖徳太子の「十七条憲法」（604）が、そのなによりの証拠である。近江(おうみ)朝の天智(てんじ)天皇は、自ら中国の詩文をつくると同時に、大いに奨励した天皇として知られるが、中国文化の摂取は政治の実務性のみならずしだいに芸術面にも及び、上流階級の人々に中国文学の知識が必須(ひっす)のものとなり、模倣が盛んに行われるようになったのである。いわゆる漢詩・漢文の知識が教養のバロメーターとなった。奈良・平安時代の上代文学の時期は、文学といえばとりもなおさず漢詩・漢文をさしていた。

　日本人が最初に学んだ中国文学は南朝風の美文学であり、その最良の手本が『文選(もんぜん)』であった。そして数度にわたる遣唐使の派遣で唐代文学の知識が深まるにつれ、唐の詩文も輸入され、人々に愛好されるようになった。とりわけ白居易(はくきょい)の『白氏文集(はくしもんじゅう)』が大きな影響を与えたが、しかし『文集』の影響が顕著になるのは平安中期以後のことである。『源氏物語』など平安中期の物語文学には、『文集』のほか『文選』など多くの中国文学の影響が認められる。

　平安時代に漢字から仮名をつくり、訓読(くんどく)という独自の解読法を生み出した日本人は、その後、相対的に中国語および中国語の詩文を書く能力は衰えていったものの、中国文学の摂取と普及はむしろ容易になり、多少の時差を伴いつつ中国の各時代の文学を学んでいった。たとえば、鎌倉・室町時代の京都五山の僧侶(そうりょ)を中心とする宋(そう)・元(げん)文学の摂取、江戸時代における明(みん)代の通俗的な長編白話小説の受容など、謡曲、俳諧(はいかい)、物語などに与えた中国文学の影響は計り知れない。

　明治期は、中国文学と西欧文学の両者のせめぎ合いの時期といってよい。結果は西欧文学がより大きな存在を占めるようになるが、それに伴って中国文学が日本文学から学ぶことが始まった。正確にいえば、日本の現代文学を通じて西欧文学を学んだのである。明治末期から大正期にかけて多数の清国留学生が来日し、日本語に訳された西欧近代文学の知識を吸収した。それがやがて中国文学の改革を生み出すのである。その代表的な文学者が魯迅であった。

　昭和期には、日中戦争によって両国の交流が中断されるという不幸な事態があったが、日本で中国の現代文学の研究が始まったのはこの時期である。魯迅や郭沫若(かくまつじゃく)・郁達夫(いくたつふ)らの作品が比較的早くに日本に紹介され、日本の知識人や作家の一部に影響を与えたが、中国現代文学の研究と翻訳が本格化するのは1949年の中華人民共和国成立後であった。さらに、1972年（昭和47）の日中国交回復以後は両国の交流が盛んになり、相互の留学生が増えると同時に文学者・研究者の交流も盛んに行われ、日本文学と中国文学の関係は一層緊密になり、新たな局面を迎えた。

［佐藤　保］

『岡田正之著『日本漢文学史』（1929／増訂版・1954・吉川弘文館）』▽『青木正児著『支那文学概説』（1935・弘文堂）』▽『『中国現代文学選集』全20巻（1962～1963・平凡社）』▽『小島憲之著『上代日本文学と中国文学』全3巻（1962～1965・塙書房）』▽『『中国古典文学大系』全60巻（1967～1975・平凡社）』▽『『全釈漢文大系』全33巻（1973～1980・集英社）』▽『丸山昇著『現代中国文学の理論と思想』（1974・日中出版）』▽『前野直彬著『中国文学史』（1975・東京大学出版会）』▽『黎波著『中国文学館――詩経から巴金』（1984・大修館書店）』▽『丸山昇ほか編『中国現代文学事典』（1985・東京堂出版）』▽『倉石武四郎著『中国文学史』（1986・中央公論社）』▽『和漢比較文学会編『和漢比較文学叢書』全18巻（1986～1994・汲古書院）』▽『竹内実・萩野脩二編著『中国文学最新事情――文革、そして自由化のなかで』（1987・サイマル出版会）』▽『藤井省三著『中国文学この百年』（1991・新潮社）』▽『北島ほか著、宮尾正樹ほか訳『発見と冒険の中国文学　紙の上の月――中国の地下文学』（1991・宝島社）』▽『張愛玲ほか著、桜庭ゆみ子ほか訳『発見と冒険の中国文学　浪漫都市物語――上海・香港'40S』（1991・JICC出版局）』▽『興膳宏編『中国文学を学ぶ人のために』（1991・世界思想社）』▽『藤井省三編『笑いの共和国――中国ユーモア文学傑作選』（1992・白水社）』▽『林田慎之介著『中国文学の底に流れるもの』（1992・創文社）』▽『駒田信二著『新編　対の思想――中国文学と日本文学』（1992・岩波書店）』▽『相浦杲著『求索――中国文学語学』（1993・未来社）』▽『萩野脩二著『中国“新時期文学”論考――思想解放の作家群』（1995・関西大学出版部）』▽『吉田富夫著『中国現代文学史』（1996・朋友書店）』▽『藤井省三・大木康著『新しい中国文学史――近世から現代まで』（1997・ミネルヴァ書房）』▽『松枝茂夫著『中国文学のたのしみ』（1998・岩波書店）』▽『藤井省三編『現代中国短編集』（1998・平凡社）』▽『丸山昇監修、芦田肇・佐治俊彦・白水紀子編『中国現代文学珠玉選　小説（1）～（3）』（2000～2001・二玄社）』▽『丸山昇著『「文化大革命」に到る道――思想政策と知識人』（2001・岩波書店）』▽『大野修作著『書論と中国文学』（2001・研文出版）』▽『佐藤美知子著『万葉集と中国文学受容の世界』（2002・塙書房）』▽『九州大学中国文学会編『中国文学講義――わかりやすくおもしろい』（2002・中国書店）』▽『吉川幸次郎著『中国文学入門』（講談社学術文庫）』▽『井波律子著『中国文章家列伝』（岩波新書）』▽『井波律子著『中国の隠者』（文春新書）』

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