Heating - Danbou (English spelling) heating

Japanese: 暖房 - だんぼう(英語表記)heating
Heating - Danbou (English spelling) heating

Generally, heating means to warm a room, and is said to be a translation of the English word "heating." However, if we consider the purpose of heating to be to warm the body, and classify it according to how heat is transferred, there are the following three types of methods.

(1) Direct contact with a warm object. Examples include a brazier or an electric blanket. These are treated as a type of warming and are not usually included in the category of heating.

(2) A method of obtaining heat directly on the surface of the body or clothing by radiating heat from a high-temperature object. Examples include underfloor heating and radiant heating appliances. This is called radiant heating.

(3) A method of preventing heat loss by convection by placing oneself in warm air. An example of this is so-called heating, which raises the room temperature.

Heating generally seems to mean simply raising the temperature inside a room, but a thermally comfortable environment for humans involves not just room temperature, but also vertical temperature distribution, humidity, radiant heat, air currents, and more. Generally, an environment is evaluated using temperature and humidity, which are easy to measure. In Japan, it is considered that adequate heating is being performed at a temperature of 18°C ​​and a relative humidity of 50% for a home, and at a temperature of 22°C and a relative humidity of 30% for a general workroom. Air pollution caused by exhaust gases from heating appliances is also an issue that requires attention, and it is important to provide sufficient ventilation. To provide healthy and effective heating, it is necessary to effectively control these factors.

[Harunori Yoshida]

History of heating

The most primitive form of heating was warmth provided by an open flame, which was probably used in conjunction with cooking. Japan's "irori" is a typical example. This method requires a large opening to allow the smoke to escape from the room, does not raise the room temperature significantly, and since the heating effect is achieved by radiating heat from the open flame, it is localized and does not affect the entire room. This method has been common throughout the world since ancient times, but it has evolved in each country in the search for more advanced heating methods. However, the basic advances in modern heating methods were made in Europe and the United States.

In Europe, in order to increase the heating effect of an open flame, hoods and chimneys were installed to effectively exhaust smoke and increase efficiency. This was the prototype of the British fireplace. However, even with this, the efficiency was low at 20-30%, and in the cold Nordic climate, the room temperature did not rise sufficiently, so the front of the fire was covered with stones or bricks to increase the hot area and increase the radiation effect. This is called a stone stove. A similar effect was also achieved with iron plates. This was called a taken platte, and was used until the early 20th century. To further increase the efficiency of stone stoves, measures were taken to skillfully guide the smoke and make it pass a long path inside the furnace, thereby removing heat from the smoke. Examples of this include the German kacheloochen, the Dutch pechka, and the Russian pechka, and their efficiency increased to 70-80%. Collectively, these are called fireplaces.

Later, with the advancement of cast iron technology, iron stoves also appeared, but this advancement was remarkable in America. This was because the buildings at the beginning of the settlement were mainly made of wood and it was difficult to install fireplaces. In particular, after the invention of the charcoal-storage stove, which did not require the trouble of putting coal in, it was re-imported to Europe and further improved, resulting in excellent stoves such as the Yunker type.

In America, a system was developed in which air was directly heated using a furnace, which evolved from a stove, and then supplied to multiple rooms through ducts. This is known as warm air heating. In Europe, from around the mid-19th century, a system was developed in which hot water or steam was produced in a boiler in one location in a building, and the hot water or steam was supplied to each room, where it was radiated and used to heat the room. These systems are collectively known as central heating, and are distinguished from individual heating systems. This method dramatically improved the cleanliness of indoor air. From the end of the 19th century, there was a remarkable development in cooling technology, and heating often came to be included as one of the functions of air conditioning equipment. Therefore, the development of heating equipment can be considered to have reached a tentative completion at this point.

In China, there is a fireplace that heats the floor by passing smoke under the floor. The Korean ondol is an advanced version of this. Floor heating is still a high-end system today.

Traditional heating in Japan is mainly achieved by using a hearth, kotatsu, or brazier. Braziers and kotatsu were introduced from China. Kotatsu are said to have originated from the Chinese "foot warmer," and it is believed that their current form of covering a futon with a blanket dates back to the Edo period. Modern heating equipment was introduced from overseas after Japan opened its doors to the world during the Meiji period. In the Taisho period, both design and manufacturing could be done domestically. In the 1960s, air conditioning began to be used in buildings as well, and buildings that only had heating equipment were limited to those built in cold regions or schools that were not used in the summer. However, except in some cold regions, central heating equipment like that in Europe and the United States has not become widespread in homes, and individual heating is still the norm today.

[Harunori Yoshida]

Heating equipment

Heating appliances are appliances that can provide heating effects on their own, such as kerosene stoves. They can be classified according to the way they transfer heat: (1) conductive types that transfer heat directly to the body, such as electric blankets, portable fires, and braziers; (2) convection types that raise the room temperature by directly heating the air, such as electric heaters, stoves, and heat pump air conditioners that do not have a heat reflector; and (3) radiation types that incorporate the effect of heat radiation, such as stoves, panel heaters, and electric carpets that have a heat reflector and are generally called reflective types.

Currently, oil, gas, and electricity are used as heat sources, and fuels that produce large amounts of soot and ash, such as coal, are rarely used. Electricity is the most hygienic form of energy, but it is expensive, so the use of efficient heat pump heaters has increased in recent years. It is important that appliances that emit exhaust gases are properly vented, as a lack of ventilation can lead to death from carbon monoxide poisoning. To prevent such accidents, appliances that can vent or supply and exhaust gases via separate routes from the indoor air are now commercially available. For safety reasons, it is expected that this type of appliance will become more popular in the future.

[Harunori Yoshida]

Heating equipment

A heating system integrated into a building is called heating equipment, and is distinguished from heating appliances, but there are some in which the distinction cannot be made clearly. In general, this refers to central heating, where the heat source equipment is placed in one place. Direct heating is a method of directly heating a room by placing a radiator, while indirect heating or warm air heating is a method of supplying heated air to the room.

Direct heating can be divided into two types, convection and radiation, depending on the heat dissipation method of the radiator. In the convection type, most of the heat is dissipated by convection, and cast iron radiators, baseboard heaters, and fan convectors are used as radiators. In the radiation type, most of the heat is dissipated by radiation, and the radiation surface is usually installed on the floor and is called a radiant panel. Since there is little temperature difference between the top and bottom of radiant heating, it is suitable for halls and conference rooms with high ceilings, and homes where the area close to the floor is also living space.

Direct heating can also be categorized by the heat transfer medium that carries the heat. When the heat transfer medium is steam, it is called steam heating, and when it is hot water, it is called hot water heating. Steam heating can be further categorized into high pressure, low pressure, vapor, and vacuum types based on the steam pressure. In addition, if the supply pipe and return (condensate) pipe are the same, it is called a one-pipe type, if they are separate, it is called a two-pipe type, if the return is by gravity, it is called a gravity return type, and if the return is made by a vacuum pump, it is called a vacuum return type. The higher the pressure of steam, the higher the condensation temperature, making it difficult to handle in terms of control and safety, so low pressure or vacuum types are often used in general buildings. Also, the two-pipe type is usually used for piping method.

Compared to hot water heating, steam heating is easier to bring the room temperature up to the desired level in a short amount of time when starting heating, but it has disadvantages such as being prone to noise and being difficult to control and manage, so it is rarely used these days.

Indirect heating uses ducts to guide air heated by an air conditioner or furnace into a room for heating. It is superior to direct heating because it is possible to adjust the air to a comfortable temperature by cleaning it with an air filter, humidifying it, or taking in fresh outside air. Nowadays, this system is often used in conjunction with cooling and planned as a so-called air conditioning system. With direct heating, all that is needed to supply heat to a room is a small-section pipe, and the equipment space required is very small, but with indirect heating, space is needed to pass through a large-section duct, which places restrictions on architectural planning.

The most common heat source equipment for heating facilities is the boiler. Steam heating uses a steam boiler, while hot water heating can use a hot water boiler or a steam boiler and heat exchanger to create hot water. There are also heat source equipment that uses a heat pump, in which case it is used in conjunction with air conditioning. Large buildings have multiple boilers and the supply is branched out to many destinations, creating a complex heat source system.

Coal was once the main energy source for heat, but recently, oil and city gas are often used to prevent air pollution. However, in recent years, solar energy has also become a major heat source. Also, waste heat energy from city waste incinerators is being reused.

[Harunori Yoshida]

Heating and buildings

Heating should be done in a way that makes the room comfortable using as little energy as possible, so it is essential to design the building rationally.

The thermal energy required to heat a building is called the heat load. To reduce the heat load, high insulation and airtightness are necessary. In addition, buildings with good insulation have higher interior wall temperatures, which feels better to the human body.

A building that warms up quickly after the heating is turned on is said to have a low thermal capacity, and wooden buildings are examples of this. Such buildings tend to cool down quickly when the heating is turned off. The opposite is true for concrete and brick buildings. The size of the thermal capacity is closely related to the pre-heating time and the room temperature when not heating, so it is an important point that must be taken into consideration when planning heating equipment.

In Japan, there are areas such as the Pacific coast of Honshu that receive a lot of sunlight in the winter. It is important to have architectural plans that make full use of this sunlight and reduce the amount of energy used for heating.

Generally, the colder the climate, the more energy is required for heating, and there is an index called degree-days to estimate how much fuel costs are needed for heating in one winter. Simply put, this is the sum of the difference between the average daily temperature and the set room temperature over one winter. Multiplying degree-days by the thermal properties of a building (called the heat loss coefficient) allows you to estimate the approximate amount of energy required in one winter, and to judge the energy efficiency of the building.

[Harunori Yoshida]

"Handbook of Heating, Air-Conditioning and Sanitary Engineering II: Air-Conditioning Edition" (1981) , edited and published by the Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning and Sanitary Engineers of Japan. ▽ "Design and Planning Pamphlet 10: Residential Heating Design" (1960 , Shokokusha), edited by the Architectural Institute of Japan. ▽ "Collection of Architectural Design Materials 1: Environment" (1978, Maruzen), edited by Watanabe Kaname. ▽ "Basic Planning for Building Equipment: Planning Edition" edited by Inoue Uichi (1975, Maruzen)."New Architectural Series Editorial Committee, New Architectural Series 27: Equipment Planning" (1982, Shokokusha).

[Reference items] | Ondol | Air conditioning | Solar house | Fireplace | District heating and cooling | Panel heating | Pechika

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

一般に、暖房とは部屋を暖めることを意味し、英語のheatingを訳したものといわれる。しかし、暖房の目的を体を暖めることと考え、熱の伝わり方に従って分類すると、次の3種類の方法がある。

(1)直接暖かい物体に触れる方法。例として、火鉢、電気毛布などがある。これらは採暖の一種として扱い、通常は暖房の範疇(はんちゅう)に含めない。

(2)高温物体から出る放射熱により体または衣服の表面に直接熱を得る方法。例として、床暖房、輻射(ふくしゃ)型暖房器具などがある。これを輻射暖房とよぶ。

(3)温度の高い空気の中に身を置き、対流熱伝達による熱損失を防止する方法。室温を上げるいわゆる暖房がこの例である。

 暖房といえば一般に室内の温度を上げることだけを意味するようであるが、人間にとって熱的に快適な環境には、単に室温だけでなく、上下温度分布、湿度、放射熱、気流などが関係する。一般には、測定のしやすい温度・湿度で環境評価する。わが国では住宅の場合、温度18℃、相対湿度50%、一般の作業室で温度22℃、相対湿度30%程度で良好な暖房が行われていると判断している。また、暖房器具からの排気ガスによる空気の汚染も注意すべき問題であり、十分な換気を行うことがたいせつである。健康的で効果的な暖房を行うには、これらの要素をうまくコントロールする必要がある。

[吉田治典]

暖房の歴史

暖房のもっとも原始的な姿は裸火による採暖で、調理用と併用して用いたと考えられる。わが国の「いろり」はその典型である。この方法は部屋から煙を排出するための大きい開口が必要であり、室温はさほど上昇せず、暖房効果は裸火からの放射熱により得られるため局所的で部屋全体には及ばない。古来よりこの方法は全世界に共通であるが、より高度の暖房方法を求めて各国で進歩した。しかし、現在の暖房方法の基本的進歩は欧米でなされたものである。

 ヨーロッパでは、裸火による暖房効果を増すため、フードと煙突を設け、煙を有効に排出し効率を上げるくふうがなされた。これがイギリス暖炉の原型である。しかし、これでも効率は20~30%と低く、寒冷な北欧では室温が十分に上がらないため、火の前面を石やれんがで覆い、高温の面積を増し輻射の効果を増大させるくふうがなされた。石造ストーブとよばれるものである。また、同様の効果を鉄板で得るようにもなった。これをターケン板taken platteとよび、20世紀初頭まで用いられた。石造ストーブの効率をさらに増すため、煙を巧みに導き、炉内で長い経路を通過させ、煙から十分に熱を奪うくふうがなされた。ドイツのカッヘルオーヘン、オランダペチカ、ロシアペチカなどがそれであり、効率も70~80%と向上した。これらを総称して暖炉という。

 その後、鋳鉄技術の進歩とともに、鉄製のストーブも現れたが、この進歩はアメリカにおいて著しい。それは、開拓当初の建物は木造が主流で暖炉を設けることが困難だったためである。なかでも投炭の手間が不用な貯炭型ストーブの発明以後、ヨーロッパにも逆輸入され、さらに改良が加えられてユンケル型などの優秀なストーブがつくられた。

 アメリカでは、ストーブから発展した温風炉(ファーネス)を用いて空気を直接加熱し、風導(ダクト)で複数の部屋に供給するシステムが生まれた。これが温風暖房である。また、ヨーロッパでは19世紀中ごろから、建物の一か所でボイラーにより温水や蒸気をつくり各部屋に供給して放熱し暖房するシステムが生まれた。これらをあわせて中央式暖房(セントラル・ヒーティング)とよび、個別式暖房と区別する。この方式により室内空気の清浄度は飛躍的に高まった。19世紀末からは冷房技術の発達が著しく、暖房は空気調和設備の一機能として包含されることが多くなった。したがって、暖房設備としての発展はこの時点でいちおう完成したとみてよいであろう。

 中国には床下に煙を通して床面を暖める炕(カン)がある。韓国のオンドルはこの発展型である。床暖房は現代においても高級なシステムである。

 わが国の伝統的な暖房は、いろり、こたつ、火鉢を用いる採暖が主である。火鉢、こたつは中国から伝来したものである。こたつは中国の「足あぶり」に由来するといわれ、ふとんをかける現在の姿になったのは江戸時代であろうと推測されている。近代的暖房設備は、明治開国後、外国から導入された。大正時代になり、設計、製作とも国内でできるようになった。1960年代になると、ビルにおいては冷房も併用されるようになり、暖房設備のみを設けるビルは、寒冷地の建築や、夏期には使用しない学校などに限られるようになった。しかし一部の寒冷地を除いて、住宅では欧米のような中央式暖房設備の普及は進まず、現在でも個別暖房が主流である。

[吉田治典]

暖房器具

暖房器具とは、石油ストーブのように単独で暖房効果が得られる器具のことをいう。熱の伝わり方によって分類すると、〔1〕電気毛布、行火(あんか)、火鉢など体に直接熱が伝わる伝導型、〔2〕熱の反射板がないタイプの電気ヒーター、ストーブ類、ヒートポンプエアコンなど、空気を直接加熱して室温を上昇させる対流型、〔3〕熱の反射板をもち、一般に反射型とよばれるストーブ類、パネルヒーター、電気カーペットなど熱放射の効果を加味した輻射型、に分かれる。

 現在は、熱源として石油、ガス、電気が用いられ、石炭など煤塵(ばいじん)、灰を多く出す燃料はほとんど使われなくなった。電気がもっとも衛生的なエネルギーであるが高価であるため、最近では効率のよいヒートポンプ式の暖房機の利用が増えている。排気ガスの出る器具はその排気を十分に行うことが重要で、不足の場合は一酸化炭素中毒により死亡することもある。こうした事故を防止するため、排気、または給排気とも、室内空気と切り離した別経路で行えるタイプの器具が市販されている。安全面から今後はこのタイプの利用が増えると思われる。

[吉田治典]

暖房設備

建物と一体化した暖房システムを暖房設備といい、暖房器具とは区別するが、明確に区別できないものもある。一般には、熱源機器を一か所に置く中央式暖房(セントラル・ヒーティング)をいう場合が多い。部屋に放熱器を置いて直接加熱する方式を直接暖房、部屋に加熱した空気を供給する方法を間接暖房または温風暖房という。

 直接暖房は、放熱器の放熱方法により、対流式、輻射式の2種類に分けられる。対流式は放熱の大半が対流伝熱によるもので、鋳鉄製放熱器、ベースボードヒーター、ファンコンベクターなどが放熱器として用いられる。輻射式は放熱の大半が放射によるもので、放熱面は通常床面に設け、輻射パネルとよばれる。輻射式による暖房は上下温度の差が少ないので、天井の高いホールや会議場、床面に近いところも生活空間となる住宅などに適する。

 直接暖房はまた、熱を運ぶ熱媒により区別することもある。熱媒が蒸気の場合を蒸気暖房、温水の場合を温水暖房という。蒸気暖房はさらに、蒸気の圧力により、高圧式、低圧式、ベーパ式、真空式に分類する。また、供給管と還水(凝縮水)管が共通のものを一管式、別のものを二管式、還水が重力によるものを重力還水式、真空ポンプを用いて還水するものを真空還水式とよぶ。蒸気は、圧力が高いほど凝縮温度が高く、制御上、安全上取扱いがむずかしく、一般ビルでは低圧式か真空式が用いられることが多い。また通常、配管法は二管式を用いる。

 温水暖房と比べて蒸気暖房は、暖房開始時、短時間に所定の室温にすることが容易であるが、騒音が発生しやすい、制御・管理がむずかしいなどの欠点をもつため、最近では用いる例が少ない。

 間接暖房は、空気調和器やファーネスで加熱した空気をダクトで部屋に導き暖房する。この際、空気をエアフィルターで清浄にする、加湿する、新鮮な外気を取り入れるなど、快適な暖房を得るための調整が可能であり、直接暖房より優れている。現在ではこのシステムは冷房と併用し、いわゆる空気調和システム(エアコンディショニング)として計画されることが多い。直接暖房の場合には、熱を部屋に供給するのに必要なものは小断面のパイプだけであり、設備スペースもわずかであるが、間接暖房では、断面の大きいダクトが通過するための空間が必要で、建築計画に制約を与える。

 暖房設備の熱源機器としてもっとも一般的なものはボイラーである。蒸気暖房には蒸気ボイラーを用いるが、温水暖房には温水ボイラーを用いる場合と、蒸気ボイラーと熱交換器を用いて温水をつくる場合とがある。ヒートポンプを用いた熱源機器もあり、この場合は冷房と併用される。大規模なビルではボイラーも複数で、供給先も多数に分岐し、複雑な熱源システムを構成する。

 熱源となるエネルギーは、かつては石炭が主流であったが、最近は大気汚染を防止するため、石油、都市ガスが用いられることが多い。しかし近年、太陽エネルギーも有力な熱源になってきている。また、都市のごみ焼却炉の排熱エネルギーを再利用することも行われている。

[吉田治典]

暖房と建物

暖房は、なるべく少ないエネルギーで室内が快適になるように行うのがよく、建物を合理的に設計することが肝要である。

 ある建物を暖房するのに要する熱エネルギーを熱負荷という。熱負荷を小さくするには、高い断熱性と気密性が必要である。また、断熱性のよい建物は室内の壁の温度も高くなり、体感上も良好になる。

 暖房を開始して短時間に暖まる建物を熱容量が小さいといい、木造建築がそれに該当する。このような建物は、暖房が停止すると急速に冷えやすい。コンクリート造や、れんが造はこの逆である。熱容量の大小は予熱時間や非暖房時の室温と深い関係があるので、暖房設備の計画にあたって十分考慮すべき重要な点である。

 わが国には、本州の太平洋岸のように冬季にかなりの日射の得られる地方がある。日射を十分に利用し暖房エネルギーの軽減につながる建築計画もたいせつである。

 一般に寒冷な気候ほど暖房エネルギーを多く要するが、暖房するために一冬にどれほどの燃料費が必要であるかを推定する指標にデグリーデーというものがある。これは簡単にいうと、日平均気温と設定室温の差を一冬にわたって積算したものである。デグリーデーに建物の熱的性質(熱損失係数という)を掛けると一冬に必要なおよそのエネルギー量が推定でき、建物の省エネルギー性の判断ができる。

[吉田治典]

『空気調和・衛生工学会編・刊『空気調和・衛生工学便覧Ⅱ 空気調和編』(1981)』『日本建築学会編『設計計画パンフレット10 住宅の暖房設計』(1960・彰国社)』『日本建築学会編『建築設計資料集成1 環境』(1978・丸善)』『渡辺要編『建築計画原論3』(1965・丸善)』『井上宇市監修『建築設備の基本計画 計画編』(1975・丸善)』『新建築学大系編集委員会編『新建築学大系27 設備計画』(1982・彰国社)』

[参照項目] | オンドル | 空気調和 | ソーラーハウス | 暖炉 | 地域冷暖房 | パネル・ヒーティング | ペチカ

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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