When water is placed in a kettle and heated from below, at first the water does not flow because thermal energy flows by thermal conduction, but eventually the water begins to move up and down. This is called convection. When a part inside the fluid is heated, it expands due to heat and its density decreases, making that part lighter and rising due to buoyancy, while the cold water around it enters it. When that part is heated, it also rises, and the cold water around it descends, and this cycle is repeated until the entire water in the kettle is heated. In the case of a kettle, the hot water rises near the center, and a downward flow occurs near the wall of the kettle. Convection does not occur at first because when the temperature difference is small, the buoyancy is also small and the upward movement is suppressed by the viscous action of the fluid. Therefore, for convection to occur, a certain temperature difference is required, which is determined by each fluid. When whale brain oil or paraffin is heated from below, convection occurs in which regular hexagonal cells are arranged. An upward current occurs near the center of the hexagon, and a downward current occurs on each side, and this is called Benard convection after its discoverer. By changing the shape of the container or adding protrusions to the bottom, various convection structures can be created. [Ryo Ikeuchi] Convection in natureVertical convection is the phenomenon in which a heavier fluid falls over when it is placed on top of a lighter fluid, or the phenomenon in which a part of a fluid layer is heated (cooled) and the mass of the fluid rises (falls) because it is lighter (heavier) than the surrounding area. The following are known examples of vertical convection in nature: (1) Convection in the liquid core inside the Earth. When liquid iron containing impurities freezes into the solid core at the center, its composition changes, causing convection (compositional convection). The Earth's magnetic field is formed as a result of convection motion. (2) Mantle convection: A flow phenomenon of solids caused by temperature gradients inside the Earth. (3) Convection in magma chambers. Convection occurs during the process of melting or solidifying hot rocks. (4) Convection in the ocean surface and in lakes and ponds. Convection occurs especially in winter when the water surface cools. (5) Double-diffusive convection in seawater. This is a special type of convection that occurs because the density of seawater is governed by two factors: temperature and salinity. (6) Atmospheric convective mixed layer. During the day, when the earth's surface is heated by solar radiation, turbulent convection occurs in the atmospheric layer about 1 kilometer above the earth's surface. (7) Mesoscale cellular convection. When a cold air layer about 1 kilometer thick flows out onto the ocean, the ocean temperature is higher than the air temperature, so the cold air is heated from below, causing cellular convection similar to Benard convection. If the wind speed in the cold air layer is strong, streaky clouds form, and if it is weak, spotty clouds form. (8) Cumulus convection. When an air mass at a certain height rises for some reason, the air pressure becomes lower the higher it goes, causing adiabatic cooling, and the temperature of the air mass decreases by about 1°C for every 100 meters it rises (dry adiabatic lapse rate). Normally, the temperature in the atmosphere decreases by about 0.6°C for every 100 meters, so the temperature of the air mass rising becomes lower than the temperature at the same height and becomes heavier, so gravity acts as a restoring force. Therefore, it cannot continue to rise. This atmospheric state is called stable. However, if the air mass is saturated with water vapor, some of the water vapor condenses as the temperature drops, releasing latent heat and warming the air mass, so the temperature drop of the air mass is about 0.5°C for every 100 meters (moist adiabatic lapse rate). Then, the higher it rises, the higher its temperature becomes than the surroundings, and it becomes lighter, so it rises further. This atmospheric state is called unstable. A state in which the atmosphere is stable against the rising of dry air but unstable against the rising of moist air is called conditionally unstable. Convection that occurs in a conditionally unstable atmosphere is called cumulus convection. This is because cumulus clouds form in the rising region. In general, convection that involves a phase change of water vapor is called moist convection. (9) Convection inside stars. Heat is generated in the center of stars by nuclear fusion reactions, and this heat escapes from the surface through thermal radiation, resulting in unstable density stratification, which is thought to cause convection. The granular spots seen on the surface of the Sun are also formed by cellular convection. (10) Horizontal convection. The atmosphere and oceans form stable density stratification (with the density decreasing toward the top), and vertical convection does not occur over a wide area. Rather, convection due to horizontal temperature differences is common. This type of convection is called horizontal convection. All types of wind, from the general atmospheric circulation to land and sea breezes, are generated by horizontal convection. The atmospheric layer from the earth's surface to the tropopause is called the troposphere because this atmospheric layer is warmed from the earth's surface and active convection occurs there. However, it is known that horizontal convection also occurs in layers above that. Ocean water circulation is a combination of wind-driven circulation, which is generated by the stress of winds blowing on the ocean surface, and thermohaline circulation, which is a type of horizontal convection. [Ryuji Kimura] [References] | | | | | | | | | |©Shogakukan "> Convection (heating water in a kettle) Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
やかんに水を入れ下から熱すると、初めは熱伝導で熱エネルギーが流れるので水の流れはおこらないが、やがて水の上下運動が生ずる。これを対流という。流体内部のある部分が温められると熱膨張して密度が下がり、その部分は軽くなって浮力により上昇するとともに、周囲の冷たい部分の水がそこへ入り込んでくる。その部分も温められると上昇し、周囲の冷たい部分が下降し、という繰り返しによってやかんの水全体が温められていく。やかんの場合は、中心付近で熱い湯が上昇し、やかんの壁付近で下降する流れがおこる。初め対流がおこらないのは、温度差の小さいときは浮力も小さく、流体の粘性作用で上昇運動が抑えられるためである。したがって対流がおこるためには、各流体で決まる一定以上の温度差が必要である。鯨脳油またはパラフィンを下から熱してやると、規則的な六角形細胞が並んだ対流が発生する。六角形の中心付近で上昇流、各辺で下降流が生じており、これを発見者にちなんでベナード対流とよぶ。容器の形を変えたり、底面に突起をつけると、いろいろな形の対流構造ができる。 [池内 了] 自然界の対流軽い流体の上に重い流体が重なったときの流体の転倒現象、または、流体層の一部が加熱(冷却)されて周囲より軽(重)くなった流体の塊が上昇(下降)する現象を、鉛直対流という。自然界の鉛直対流の例としては次のようなことが知られている。 (1)地球内部にある液体核の中の対流。不純物を含んだ液体の鉄が中心部の固体核に凍結する際に組成が変化して対流が生じる(組成対流)。対流運動の結果、地球磁場が形成されている。 (2)マントル対流。地球内部での温度勾配(こうばい)による固体の流動現象。 (3)マグマだまりの中の対流。高温の岩石が融解または凝固する過程のなかで対流が生じる。 (4)海洋表層および湖沼の対流。とくに冬季に水面が冷却されて対流が生じる。 (5)海水内部の二重拡散対流。海水の密度が温度と塩分の二つの要素に支配されることが原因で生じる特殊な対流。 (6)大気の対流混合層。昼間、地表面が日射で加熱されると、地表から1キロメートルほどの大気層の中で乱気流の対流が生じる。 (7)中規模細胞状対流。厚さ1キロメートルほどの寒気層が海洋上に流出するとき、海水温が気温より高いので、寒気が下層から加熱されてベナード対流に似た細胞状対流が生じる。寒気層内の風速が大きい場合は筋(すじ)状の雲が、弱い場合は斑点(はんてん)状の雲が生じる。 (8)積雲対流。ある高さにある空気塊が何かの原因で上昇すると、気圧は上空へいくほど低くなるために断熱冷却が生じ、空気塊の温度が100メートル上昇するごとに約1℃ずつ減少する(乾燥断熱減率)。普通、大気中の気温は100メートルにつき約0.6℃ずつ減少するから、上昇する空気塊の気温は、同じ高さの気温より低くなり重くなるので、重力が復原力として作用することになる。したがって、上昇を持続することはできない。このような大気の状態を安定という。ところが、もしも空気塊が水蒸気で飽和していると、気温の低下とともに水蒸気の一部が凝結して、潜熱が解放され空気塊を暖めるので、空気塊の温度低下は100メートルにつき0.5℃程度になる(湿潤断熱減率)。すると、上昇すればするほど周囲より気温が高くなり、軽くなって、ますます上昇することになる。このような大気の状態を不安定という。 このように、乾燥空気の上昇に対しては安定であるが、湿潤空気の上昇に対して不安定な状態を条件付き不安定という。条件付き不安定大気中に生じる対流を積雲対流という。これは上昇域に積雲が生じるからである。一般に水蒸気の相変化を伴う対流を湿潤対流という。 (9)恒星内部の対流。恒星は中心部で核融合反応により熱が発生しており、表層から熱放射で熱が逃げるので、不安定な密度成層になっており、対流が生じていると考えられている。太陽表面にみられる粒状斑も細胞状対流によって形成されたものである。 (10)水平対流。大気や海洋は安定な密度成層(上部ほど密度の小さな成層)をなしており、広い範囲にわたって鉛直対流が生じることはない。むしろ、水平方向の温度差による対流が一般的である。このような対流を水平対流という。大気大循環から海陸風に至るまで、あらゆる種類の風は水平対流によって生じる。地表から圏界面までの大気層を対流圏というのは、この大気層が地表面から暖められ、活発な対流が生じているからである。しかし、それより上層でも水平対流が生じていることが知られている。海水循環は、海面に吹く風の応力によって生じる風成循環と、水平対流の一種である熱塩循環があわさったものである。 [木村龍治] [参照項目] | | | | | | | | | |©Shogakukan"> 対流(やかんの水を熱する場合) 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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