Setsudoshi - Setsudoshi

Japanese: 節度使 - せつどし

In China, local military commanders were established during the Tang and Five Dynasties dynasties, and many of them formed semi-independent governments, especially in the latter half of the dynasty. They were commonly called han (fan), hanchin (fan town), or fangzhen (fang town). From the latter half of the 7th century, military towns were established to defend the borders in response to invasions by northern tribes, and gradually increased in number, replacing the chinju (garrisons) that were based on the fubing system. Jiedushi (official commanders) were appointed to oversee them as local supreme commanders and to regulate (command and control) the various armies. Starting with the first one in the northwestern border in 710, ten Jiedushi were appointed throughout the entire border during the reign of Xuanzong. At first, they were in charge of the military affairs of several provinces, but in order to procure and supply military supplies, they grew in power by taking on various positions in finance and civil administration (preparation, field construction, coin minting, maritime and land transport, and observation and management), and also served as the provincial governor (shishi) of their residence (huifu), growing into an independent warlord who held the three powers of the military, civilian, and financial. In 755, An Lushan, the powerful governor of the domain who also held the three governorships of Pinglu, Fanyang, and Hadong, rebelled, and this rebellion was the catalyst for the establishment of defense governors and training governors in the interior, and the metropolitan training governors and metropolitan defense governors who oversaw them were added to the ranks of domain governors. Eventually, the name was unified into Settushi, but each was given a military title and served as the civil governor and governor of the Kaifu, as well as the inspector with supervisory powers over several provinces.As the heads of the provinces (domains) under their jurisdiction, they established the shogunate with a guard army called the Gagun at its core, and supplemented this with trusted military commanders and shogunate officials, with outer patrol troops led by the Chinsho stationed in key locations within the domain.

The sources of funds for raising soldiers were largely due to the operation of commercial loan capital, such as the management of manors and stores using merchants who were on the government's side, which allowed the domains to use a portion of their taxes for their own expenses (the "Ryuenshi"), and the provision of private soldiers. Powerful domains inherited their status hereditarily, neglected to report to the central government and submit taxes, sought to expand their military through illegal means, and frequently attempted rebellions, which made it difficult for the central government to control them. However, during the reign of Emperor Xianzong (reigned 805-820), authority was reduced and the domains' authority was temporarily restored. However, the domain armies, which had become groups of hereditary professional soldiers, eventually began to support their own representatives as military governors, and the unity of the Tang dynasty collapsed. All of the rulers of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms ascended to the throne as powerful governors, and this is said to have been an era of military rule of overthrowing the ruling class. However, the numerous governors gradually became more fragmented and smaller in size, and by the Song dynasty their authority and structure was dismantled and they became mere honorary titles for military personnel, and the shogunate was absorbed into local governments as governors of provinces and prefectures.

[Hideo Kikuchi]

Japan

In Japan, in 732 (Tenpyo 4), to deal with tensions in relations with Silla, Fujiwara Fusasaki, Tajihi no Agatamori, and Fujiwara Umakai were appointed as three sekideshi in the Tokai, Tosan, San'in, and Saikai provinces, respectively, to strengthen military preparations and train soldiers. These were abolished in 734, but in 761 (Tenpyo Hoji 5), three sekideshi in the Tokai, Nankai, and Saikai provinces were established in connection with Fujiwara no Nakamaro's (Emi no Oshikatsu) plan to invade Silla. However, due to the failure of the plan, these were abolished in 764.

[Haruo Sasayama]

"The Warlords of Medieval China" (included in "Hino Kaizaburo's Essays on Oriental History, Vol. 1", 1980, San-ichi Shobo) "An Outline of the History of the Five Dynasties" (included in "Hino Kaizaburo's Essays on Oriental History, Vol. 2", 1980, San-ichi Shobo)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国、唐・五代に設置された地方軍司令官、とくに後半期には半独立政権を形成したものが多く、藩(はん)、藩鎮(はんちん)、方鎮と通称される。7世紀後半から北方民族の侵攻に対応して辺境防備のため募兵制の大軍団が常屯(じょうとん)する軍鎮が置かれ、府兵制の鎮戍(ちんじゅ)にかわってしだいに増加したが、それらを統括する現地最高司令官として諸軍を節度（指揮命令）する官職として節度使が任命された。710年西北辺境に置いたのに始まり、玄宗朝に全辺境にわたって10節度使が任命された。最初は数州の軍事をつかさどったが、軍糧補給・調達のため、財政、民政の諸使職（支度(したく)、営田、鋳銭、海・陸運等使、観察処置使）を兼任して権力強大となり、居城（会府）の州長官（刺史(しし)）をも兼任して軍・民・財三権を握る独立軍閥に成長した。755年平盧(へいろ)、范陽(はんよう)、河東の3節度使を兼ねた巨大藩鎮安禄山(あんろくざん)が反し、この乱を契機に内地にも防禦(ぼうぎょ)使、団練使などが列置され、それらを統(す)べる都団練、都防禦使が藩鎮の列に加わった。やがて名称は節度使に統一されたが、おのおの軍号を与えられ、会府の民政長官刺史と数州の監察権をもつ観察使を兼ね、その管轄区域である道（藩）の長官として牙（衙）(が)軍とよばれる親衛軍を中核に幕府を開き、腹心の軍将と幕職官でこれを固め、鎮将に率いられる外鎮軍を藩内要地に配置した。

　養兵財源は賦税の一部を藩費にあてるのを認められた（留使）ほか、御用商人を使った邸店経営など商業利貸資本の運営によるところが大きく、私兵を養った。強藩はその地位を世襲し、中央への戸口申報、賦税上供を怠り、不法手段で軍拡に努め、しばしば反抗を企て、中央はその統制に苦しんだが、憲宗（在位805～820）時代に権限を削減して一時権威を回復した。しかし世襲職業軍人集団と化した藩軍がついに自ら彼らの代表者を節度使に擁立し始め、唐朝の統一は崩壊した。五代十国の君主はいずれも有力節度使から即位し、下剋上(げこくじょう)の武人政治時代とされるが、他方、乱立した節度使はしだいに細分化、小規模化し、宋(そう)に至ってその権限、機構は解体され、単なる軍人の名誉的称号と化し、幕府は幕職州県官として地方官に吸収された。

［菊池英夫］

日本

日本では732年（天平4）、新羅(しらぎ)との関係の緊張に対処し、東海東山・山陰・西海各道の3節度使にそれぞれ藤原房前(ふささき)、多治比県守(たじひのあがたもり)、藤原宇合(うまかい)を任じ、兵備の強化、兵士の訓練などのことにあたらせた。734年廃止されたが、761年（天平宝字5）、藤原仲麻呂(なかまろ)（恵美押勝(えみのおしかつ)）の新羅征討計画に関連して東海、南海、西海道の3節度使を設置。しかし同計画の挫折(ざせつ)により764年廃止された。

［笹山晴生］

『「支那中世の軍閥」（『日野開三郎東洋史学論集　第1巻』所収・1980・三一書房）』▽『「五代史概説」（『日野開三郎東洋史学論集　第2巻』所収・1980・三一書房）』

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