Stone tools

Japanese: 石器 - せっき

Tools made and used by humans using stone are called stone tools. This term mainly refers to archaeological materials discovered as relics at ruins. Humans' relationship with stone tools dates back more than 2.5 million years. At that time, complex processing involving the combination of split surfaces was already observed, so the simple use of stone likely dates back even further. When considering the role of stone tools, we must consider stone tools as tools for making other stone tools, and when considering their function and use, we must also take into account materials such as wood, bone, and leather that are combined with stone tools.

Although the production and use of stone tools can sometimes be inferred from local and folk examples, it is essential to understand them from a restoration perspective based on traces of processing and use. Processing and use traces observed on the surface of stone tools are strictly classified, and research is now being conducted that traces the intentions and mechanisms of the people who made and used the stone tools by following up on them through production and use experiments.

A large number of stone fragments (flakes, broken pieces, etc.) are generated during the production and use of stone tools. Although these cannot be called tools directly, they are considered to be part of the main body of the stone tool in relation to its production and use as a tool. As the way the stone fragments are generated shows, they are two entities that were separated from the original stone by a single blow, and they are related by joining (the two separated entities are reattached). There is a sorting process for confirming the direct relationship between artifacts, and the process of confirming the two separated entities and returning them to their original state is called joining work, and the restored materials are called joined materials. The evaluation of joined materials, which has been increasing in recent years, is important as data for understanding the process of stone tool production and use more concretely. On the other hand, there is a movement in research to expand the data to discuss human relationships within and between ruins, using the distribution of the same stones excavated as evidence of the distribution of stone materials for stone tools.

In addition, recent advances in research into the composition of rocks in the field of natural sciences have made it possible to identify the origins of volcanic rocks. As a result, the issue of stone distribution has become an issue that can be discussed by investigating the relationship between the quality of stone tools found at archaeological sites and their origins.

[Aio Matsuzawa]

Production method and periodization

In the long history of humankind, which spans more than 4 million years, the role of stone tools has changed over time, and various methods of making stone tools have been devised. In principle, there are only three techniques for processing stone: breaking it into pieces (this includes the technique of peeling off), beating it down (knocking), and polishing it (polishing). Of course, the origin of stone tool making is breaking it into pieces. In accordance with the physical phenomenon of stone breaking, when the edge of a stone is broken off, two things are produced: the chips that are about to come off (called flakes) and the part that remains after the chips have been removed (called the core). Each has its own characteristics, and they are divided into stone tools made from thick, heavy cores (core stone tools) and stone tools that make use of the lightness, sharpness, and sharpness of the flakes (flake stone tools).

The period when stone tools were primarily used as convenience tools is called the Stone Age, and is divided into the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. One of the conditions for this division is the change from chipping techniques to polishing techniques. This is true when viewed from the perspective of the overall flow of stone tool history, but in the case of Japan, the relationship between period divisions and changes in technology does not necessarily match. Based on the results of geology, there are stone axes with only the blade polished (partially polished stone axes) that have been discovered along with stone tools found in strata (terrace topography and volcanic ash layers from the Pleistocene era) that correspond to the Late Paleolithic Period. Their existence was already revealed during excavations at the Iwajuku ruins.

When trying to distinguish between the Paleolithic and Jomon periods based on the invention (emergence) of pottery, there are cases where the same microliths are made with pottery and cases where they are not, and there are also cases where tongue-pointed vessels are made with pottery and cases where they are not. This is an example that shows that periodization and changes in cultural phenomena do not necessarily coincide. The use of metals began in the Yayoi period, which is also called the Metal Age, and marks the transition from stone tools to metal tools. Therefore, the life of stone tools in the strict sense came to an end here, but the fact that metals began to be used does not mean that stone tools immediately stopped being made. Although this is a regional phenomenon, there are some places where stone tool making was actively carried out as a supplement to metal.

[Aio Matsuzawa]

Paleolithic

From a world historical perspective, the period can be divided into early, middle and late periods. The early period was dominated by the production of core stone tools. There are pebble tools distributed from East Africa to Asia, and their development into hand axes found in areas from Africa to Europe. Pebble tools are tools made by chipping off one end of a natural pebble to create a blade. Based on how the blade is made, there are single-edged ones (choppers) where only one side is chipped off, and double-edged ones (chopping tools) where both sides are hammered in separately. A hand axe is a stone tool made from pebble or a thick flake that is carved to cover the entire surface. There are elegant pieces made into an egg or pear shape, but in any case, a single stone tool is created from a single piece of stone.

In the Middle Period, the Levallois technique was developed, in which similar flakes were peeled off by adjusting the periphery of a stone core. This technique can be considered the basis of the more advanced stone blade technique of the later period. In Japan, there has been an increase in related materials. Another stone tool from this period is the oblique-axis point (named after the misalignment between the direction of the force applied when peeling off the raw flakes and the position of the functional tip of the removed flakes).

In the later period, the technique of peeling off a large number of regular flakes from a single stone became popular. A long, vertical flake with sharp parallel edges on both sides is called a stone blade. A method was devised to efficiently peel off stone blades from a single stone (the stone blade technique), and the highest level of technology of this type was perfected. In Japan, while the stone used differs from that used in Europe, the basic concept of stone tool making is exactly the same. A method was also devised to efficiently peel off long, horizontal flakes (called wing-shaped flakes) in a continuous fashion (called the Setouchi technique). Sanukite, a type of andesite, is mainly used, and this processing method is unique to Japan, as it demonstrates a good understanding of the properties of the stone.

Stone tools made by processing stone blades and flakes include mainly knife-shaped stone tools, as well as cutting tools, carving tools, scrapers, scrapers, trapezoidal stone tools, etc. Knife-shaped stone tools may also be accompanied by axe-shaped stone tools with part of the blade ground (partially ground stone axes).

Towards the end of the knife-shaped stone tools, a number of leaf-shaped spear-shaped stone tools were discovered in the Kanto and Chubu regions. Also called points, they were stone tools with handles attached for stabbing. Both sides were generally machined, but there were also ones with one-sided machining in the style of knives, and ones with special flaking (groove-shaped flaking) from the tip to one edge. Many appear to have been machined with a soft hammer (deer antler, hard wood, etc.), but a finishing technique of pressing and peeling (pressure flaking) was also used.

Towards the end of the Late Period, as a more developed form of stone blade technique, microblades just a few millimeters wide were produced in large quantities. These were used as replacement blades for composite stone tools, and the Yubetsu technique was born in Hokkaido. The microblade flaking technique can be said to be a miniaturized version of the stone blade technique, but the basic technique of making spear-shaped stone tools is necessary for preparing the cores.

The large, partially ground stone axes that appeared towards the end of the Late Period were entirely made by chipping, with only the edges of the blade polished. The Late Paleolithic Period corresponds to the Würm Glacial Period and the Interglacial Period, and these stone tools were used to hunt and butcher large animals.

[Aio Matsuzawa]

Jomon period

In the Jomon period, hunting and gathering were the basis of life. Rude bows and arrows played a major role, and stone arrowheads of various shapes and sizes were mass-produced by processing using the pressure flake method. Although there were fewer stone spears than stone arrowheads, they were also used as hunting tools. Stone spoons, also known as skinners, were used as small knives for skinning animals and cutting meat. Stone weights were also available, and fishing was actively carried out in rivers and on beaches. Polished stone axes changed depending on the period and region (partially polished stone axes made by polishing the edge of a small pebble in the early Kanto region, scraping stone axes in the early period in northern Japan, pestle-shaped stone axes in the middle Kanto and Chubu regions, and fixed-angle stone axes in the later period). Unlike axes, chipped stone axes are thought to be digging tools and were used to dig holes for dwellings and to dig up roots and stems. Tools used to crack and crush plant fruits and roots include stone plates, grinding stones, hammering stones, concave stones, and stone crowns. In addition to practical tools, stone products were made that reflect the spiritual aspects of their lives. In the Middle Period, huge stone clubs were made, and in the Later and Late Period, small stone clubs, stone swords, stone knives, single-pronged stones, stone crowns, sacred stone tools, and blue dragon swords were made as ceremonial treasures, as well as magical and amulet-like rock slabs and ornaments.

[Aio Matsuzawa]

Yayoi period

As farming was the basis of life in the Yayoi period, stone tools are thought to have been used in conjunction with metal tools to make wooden farming implements such as hoes and plows. In the later period, iron tools became widespread, and stone tools disappeared. Thick clam-shaped bladed stone axes were used to process large pieces of wood such as materials for wooden implements and building materials, while flat single-edged stone axes and columnar single-edged stone axes were used as choppers (hand axes) for chipping work. Small stone chisels, pebble knives, and irregularly shaped stone tools which are thought to have mainly served as wedges were also widely used. As can be seen in bronze bell paintings depicting people hunting deer and wild boar with bows and arrows, a large number of hammered and polished stone arrowheads were made, as well as fishing net weights, so hunting and fishing did not completely disappear. Stone knives were used as sickles during the autumn rice harvest. Special items include iron-sword-shaped stone swords, grooved stone swords, stone halberds, and handled stone swords, all of which are modeled after metal weapons. There were also ring-shaped stone axes, which were practical weapons. Small items such as spindle wheels for spinning thread, and decorative items such as cylindrical beads and small beads were also made.

[Aio Matsuzawa]

[Reference items] | Hammered stone tools | Polished stone tools

Stone arrowhead
Late Jomon period, length 3.5cm, owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art ">

Stone arrowhead

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

人間が石を用いて製作し、使用した道具を石器という。おもに遺跡から遺物として発見される考古学的資料をさす。人間と石器とのかかわりは250万年以上をさかのぼる。その時点で、すでに打ち割り面を複雑に組み合わせた加工がみられるので、単純な石の利用はさらにさかのぼるだろう。道具としての役割を考えるならば、石器をつくる道具としての石器を、また機能・用法を考えるならば、石器と組み合わせる木、骨、皮などの素材も考慮すべきである。

　石器の製作や使用方法は土俗・民俗例などから類推することもあるが、本来的には加工痕跡(こんせき)や使用痕跡などから復原的に理解することが必要である。石器の表面に観察される加工痕、使用痕は厳密に区分され、製作や使用実験を通して追跡検討しながら、その石器をつくり、使った人の意図や仕組みにまでも迫る研究が行われるようになってきた。

　石器は製作や使用に伴って、おびただしい石片（剥片(はくへん)、砕片など）が生じる。これらは直接的には道具とよぶことはできないが、道具としての石器の製作や使用に関連して、本来はその本体の一部であったものにあたることから、石器として扱う範囲にある。石器と石片の関係は、石片の生じ方が示すように、元になる石から一撃で分かれた二者として、接合（分かれた二者がふたたび接着する）という関係をもつ。遺物について、その直接的な関係を確認する整理作業があり、分かれた二者を確認して元の状況に戻す作業を接合作業とよび、復原された資料を接合資料という。近年増加してきた接合資料の評価は石器の製作の経過を、また使用の経過をより具体的に理解するためのデータとして重視される。一方、出土する同じ石の分散状況を通して石器用石材の分配の証(あかし)として、遺跡内での、また遺跡間での人間関係を論じるデータにまで敷衍(ふえん)しようとする研究の動きもある。

　また、近年自然科学分野での岩石成分組成の研究が進み、火山岩系の岩石の産地同定が可能になった。そのため遺跡からでる石器の石質と産地との関連を調べることにより、石材流通の問題も論じられるようになってきた。

［松沢亜生］

製作方法と時代区分

人類の400万年を超える長い歴史のなかで石器の役目は時代とともに移り変わり、石器づくりの方法もいろいろと考案されてきた。原則として、石材の加工技術は、打ち割る＝打製(だせい)（押し剥(は)ぐ技術はこのなかに含める）、敲(たた)き減らす＝敲製(こうせい)、磨く＝磨製(ませい)という三つだけである。もちろん、石器づくりの原点は打ち割りである。物理的な石の割れの現象にしたがって、石材の縁を割り取ると、とれかけたかけら（剥片とよぶ）と、かけらをとって残った部分（石核とよぶ）の二つが生ずる。それぞれが加工され個性をもち、部厚く重い石核を加工した石器（石核石器(せっかくせっき)）と、剥片の軽さ、鋭さ、とがりぐあいを利用する石器（剥片石器）に分かれる。

　石器をおもに利器として活用した時代を石器時代とよび、旧石器時代と新石器時代に分ける。その区分の条件の一つに、打製技術から磨製技術に変わることがあげられる。石器の歴史の大きな流れからみて確かだが、日本の場合、時代区分と技術の変化の対応関係はかならずしも一致しない。地質学の成果を根拠に後期旧石器時代に対比される地層（更新世にあたる段丘地形や火山灰層）で発見される石器類に伴って発見される刃部だけ磨いた石斧（局部磨製石斧）がある。その存在は岩宿(いわじゅく)遺跡の発掘調査ですでに明らかにされていた。

　旧石器時代と縄文時代を分ける時代区分の問題として、土器の発明（発生）をもって区分しようとするとき、石器づくりでは同じ細石器に土器を伴うものと伴わないものがあり、また有舌尖頭器(ゆうぜつせんとうき)にも土器を伴うものと伴わないものがある。時代区分と文化現象の変化はかならずしも一致しないことを示す例である。弥生(やよい)時代には金属の利用が始まり金属器時代ともよばれ、石製利器から金属製利器への交代期にあたる。したがって、狭義の意味での石器の生命はここで終わることになるが、金属が使用されるようになったからといって、石器がただちにつくられなくなったわけではない。地域的現象ではあるが、むしろ金属の補助役として、石器づくりが盛んに行われた所もある。

［松沢亜生］

旧石器時代

世界史的にみて、前期、中期、後期に分かれる。前期は石核石器づくりが中心である。東アフリカからアジアにかけて分布する礫器(れっき)と、その発展として、アフリカからヨーロッパにわたる地域の握斧(にぎりおの)（ハンドアックス）がある。礫器は自然礫の一端を打ち欠いて刃にした道具である。刃のつくりだし方から、片面側だけ欠き取った片刃のもの（チョッパー）と両面に打ち分けた両刃のもの（チョッピングトゥール）がある。礫または部厚い剥片を用いて、全面にわたるように加工した石器がハンドアックスである。卵形または西洋梨形につくりあげた優美な作品があるが、いずれにしても、一つの石材から一つの石器がつくりだされている。

　中期には、石核の周辺を調整して似た剥片を剥ぎ取るルバロワ技法が生まれる。これはさらに高度な後期の石刃技法の基になる技術として評価できる。日本でもこれに絡む資料が増えてきた。また、この時期の石器として、斜軸尖頭器（素材となる剥片を剥ぐときに加えた力の方向と取れた剥片の機能先端部の位置のずれから名づけられた）がある。

　後期には、一つの石材から多数の定形的な剥片を剥ぎ取る技法が盛んになる。縦長の剥片で鋭い両側縁が平行して走る形の整ったものを石刃(せきじん)とよぶ。一つの石材から効率よく石刃を剥ぎ取る方法（石刃技法）が編み出され、この種の最高の技術が完成する。日本の場合も、ヨーロッパと比較して、使用する石材の違いはあるが、石器づくりの基本的な考え方はまったく同じである。また、横長の剥片（翼状(つばさじょう)剥片とよぶ）を連続的に効率よく剥ぎ取る方法（瀬戸内(せとうち)技法とよぶ）も編み出される。おもに安山岩の一種であるサヌカイトが使われるが、その石の性質をよく見抜いた日本固有の加工法である。

　石刃、剥片類を加工してつくる石器には、ナイフ形石器を中心に、切出し形石器、彫器、削器(さっき)、掻器(そうき)、台形石器などがある。またナイフ形石器には、刃部の一部を磨いた斧形石器（局部磨製石斧）を伴うことがある。

　ナイフ形石器が終わるころ関東・中部地方では、木の葉形の槍形石器がまとまって発見される。尖頭器（またはポイント）ともよばれ、柄をつけて突き刺すことを目的とした石器である。両面加工が一般的であるが、ナイフの流れをくむ片面加工のもの、先端から片側の縁にかけて特殊な剥離（樋状剥離）を行うものなどがある。多くは軟質ハンマー（鹿角、堅い木など）による加工とみられるが、仕上げに押し剥ぐ技術（押圧(おうあつ)剥離）も使われる。

　後期の終わりごろには、石刃技法の発達した形として、幅数ミリメートルの細石刃が多量につくられる。組合せ石器の替え刃として用いられ、北海道に湧別(ゆうべつ)技法が生まれる。細石刃の剥離技法は石刃技法の小型化したものといえるが、石核の準備には基本として槍形石器をつくる技術が必要となる。

　後期の最終末に現れる大形の局部磨製石斧は全体を打製でつくりあげ、刃部周辺だけを磨きだしている。後期旧石器時代はビュルム氷期～間氷期の時代にあたり、大形動物の狩猟・解体にこれらの石器類が使われた。

［松沢亜生］

縄文時代

縄文時代も狩猟、採集が生活の基盤である。粗末な弓矢が主役となり、形、大きさのさまざまな石鏃(せきぞく)が押圧剥離法による加工で大量につくられた。石鏃に比べて石槍の量は少ないが、これも狩猟用具である。石匙(いしさじ)は皮剥ぎともよばれ、動物の皮を剥いだり肉を切ったりする小刀として用いられた。また石錘(せきすい)もあり、川や海浜で漁労が活発に行われた。磨製石斧は時期、地域によって変化がみられる（関東地方の早期に小形の礫の端部を磨いた局部磨製石斧、北日本の前期に擦切(すりきり)石斧、関東・中部地方の中期に乳棒状石斧、後期に定角式(ていかくしき)石斧）。打製石斧は斧(おの)と違って土掘り具と考えられ、住居のための竪穴(たてあな)掘りに、根茎類の掘り起こしに活躍した。植物の実・根などを割ったり、擦りつぶしたりする道具として石皿(いしざら)や磨石(すりいし)、敲石(たたきいし)、凹石(くぼみいし)、石冠(せっかん)などがある。実用的な利器以外に彼らの精神生活面を表す石製品類がつくられる。中期には巨大な石棒、後・晩期には儀礼的な宝器である小形石棒、石剣、石刀、独鈷石(どっこいし)、石冠、御物(ぎょぶつ)石器、青竜刀(せいりゅうとう)石器、また呪術(じゅじゅつ)的、護符的な岩版や装飾品などがつくられた。

［松沢亜生］

弥生時代

弥生時代の石器は、生活が農耕を根幹とするものであったことから、鍬(くわ)、鋤(すき)といった木製農耕具づくりに、金属製の工具を助けて使用されたとみられる。後期には鉄器が普及し、それとともに石器類は姿を消すことになった。太形蛤刃(ふとがたはまぐりば)石斧が、木器用の素材や住居用材など大形の材の加工に、扁平片刃(へんぺいかたば)石斧、柱状片刃石斧がチョウナ（手斧）として削る作業にそれぞれ用いられた。小形石のみ、小石刀、主として楔(くさび)の役割を果たしたとみられる不定形石器も大いに利用された。弓矢を構えて鹿(しか)、猪(いのしし)を猟する姿が銅鐸(どうたく)絵に描かれているように、打製、磨製の石鏃もかなりつくられたし、漁網の錘(おもり)もあり、狩猟、漁労もまったくなくなったわけではない。秋の稲の収穫時には鎌(かま)として石包丁(いしぼうちょう)が使われる。特殊なものに、金属製の武器をかたどった鉄剣形石剣、有樋(ゆうひ)式石剣、石戈(せっか)、有柄(ゆうへい)式石剣などがある。実用的な武器である環状石斧もある。小物として糸紡ぎの紡錘車が、また管玉(くだだま)、小玉(こだま)などの装飾品もつくられた。

［松沢亜生］

[参照項目] | 打製石器 | 磨製石器

石鏃
縄文時代後期　長さ3.5cmメトロポリタン美術館所蔵">

石鏃

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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