Bronze ware

Japanese: 青銅器 - せいどうき

It broadly refers to containers, musical instruments, tools, mirrors, carriages, and horse equipment made of bronze. Strictly speaking, bronze is an alloy containing about 10% tin to copper. Bronze artifacts as archaeological remains are not just bronze in the strict sense, but often contain metals such as lead, arsenic, antimony, and nickel, and are generally referred to as bronze artifacts as well. In China and Japan, bronze items were called bronze drums and bronze bells, and are simply called copper artifacts.

Copper is one of the oldest metals discovered and used by humans. However, it is still unclear when, where, and by what process the knowledge and technology of copper metallurgy was acquired and spread throughout the world. There has been a debate between the monistic theory, which holds that copper originated in one place and spread to various places, and the pluralistic theory, which holds that copper originated from multiple places, but it is currently assumed that copper originated in one place and then developed separately in various places.

Historically, metals played a major role in the establishment of cities and the formation of ancient nations. In the case of bronze tools, a social group had to be formed that could support a group of specialized craftsmen and secure the necessary ores and fuels to produce them. The organization and maintenance of a group, including the supply of food and the division of labor, would require the existence of great power. In both the ancient Orient and ancient China, bronze tools appeared at such a stage in the development of society.

[Musha Sho]

West Asia

In Mesopotamia, copper daggers, knives, nails, and seals can be found in the Halaf period in the second half of the 5th millennium BC, but bronze tools did not appear until the Ubaid period (c. 4000-3400 BC). This was also the time when irrigation of large rivers was systematically carried out and the prototype of a city with a large temple at its core was completed. From the ruins of the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100-2800 BC) onwards, containers as well as weapons and tools such as daggers, axes, and chisels have been excavated. In the Early Dynastic period, the bronze culture developed to a high level, with a wide variety and quantity of weapons and tools such as stemmed swords, spearheads, crescent-shaped battle axes, arrowheads, and saws, as well as statues and containers of bulls, eagles, and lions. In Egypt, copper needles and pins can be seen in the Badari period around 4000 BC, but until around 2000 BC, copper products containing almost no tin were produced. In the Gerzei period (around 3400 BC to 3000 BC), axes were cast using open molds, and the statue of Pepi I of the 6th Dynasty of the Old Kingdom is famous as an early example of wax casting. It is believed that the production of bronze tools containing tin in Egypt began in earnest after the 15th Dynasty established by the Hyksos.

The Bronze Age culture that developed in Western Asia was eventually spread to other parts of the world. Its spread to Europe began on the Aegean coast in the early third millennium BCE, and spread from Eastern Europe to the rest of Europe, developing in its own way in each region. Bronze swords, perforated axes, arrowheads, containers, and ornaments can be found in the Hallstatt culture, which belongs to the Iron Age. The Luristan Bronze Age culture, which developed in the Zagros Mountains in southwestern Iran, produced weapons such as daggers, arrowheads, and battle axes, as well as horse equipment, accessories, containers, and ritual items skillfully decorated with animal designs, from around the second half of the second millennium BCE. In northern Eurasia, the Bronze Age culture left behind by nomadic peoples flourished after the second millennium BCE. The Andronovo culture that arose in Kazakhstan in the first half of the second millennium BCE is known for its daggers, battle axes, and hooked axes. The Karasukh culture of Minusinsk, the Tagar culture, and the Suiyuan Bronze Age culture of Ordos also produced bronze artefacts such as daggers, spears, axes, knives, arrowheads, horse equipment, and belt fittings, and a common feature of these cultures is the use of bronze knives decorated with animal figures.

[Musha Sho]

China

Chinese bronzeware was most popular during the Yin and Zhou dynasties, and those from the late Yin period in particular achieved unparalleled development in world history in terms of the variety of vessel shapes, applied patterns, and technical sophistication. Even today, these Yin and Zhou bronzes are not only beloved as works of art with high artistic value, but their vessel shapes, patterns, and cast inscriptions have long been studied as essential contemporary historical materials for exploring contemporary history, and are major topics in history, archaeology, and epigraphy.

It is still unclear what triggered the production of bronze vessels in China. There are two theories, one that they were introduced into West Asia, and the other that they originated in China, and no conclusion has been reached. However, China already had advanced pottery technology during the late Longshan culture, and the path to acquiring copper casting technology was almost complete. It is thought that bronze casting began during the period from the late Longshan culture to the early Shang dynasty, but bronze vessels only appeared during the early Shang dynasty, and reports have been released from the Erlitou site in Yanshi County, Henan Province, of weapons such as the spear and lance, tools such as chisels and bells, and wine vessels called Jue. Jue is a typical Chinese bronze vessel made from the Shang dynasty to the Western Zhou dynasty, but the Jue from the early Shang dynasty are simply made with thin, flat bottoms and no patterns. Many bronze artefacts from the mid-Shang Dynasty have also been discovered at sites such as Baijiazhuang and Minggong Lu in Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, Liulige in Huixian, and Panlongcheng in Hubei Province.They are of a wide variety and began to be decorated with patterns. A wide variety of containers were made, including cooking tripods, ke tripods, liqi, and gen; jue, ka, and ka for heating wine; gu drinking vessels; rai, fang yi, huos, yus, sons, and urns for serving wine; qi and tou for serving grains; and water trays; as well as weapons and tools such as halberds, swords, axes, arrowheads, and darts, as well as carriages and horse equipment and human faces. These were then decorated with basic patterns of the Yin and Zhou dynasties, such as the taotie pattern, ki pattern, and circular whirlpool pattern, to decorate the bottom of the vessels.

The late Shang dynasty is the standard period for artifacts unearthed at the so-called Yin Ruins in Xiaotun Village, Anyang County, Henan Province, and is also the time when China entered the full Bronze Age and manufacturing techniques were at their highest level. This period covers approximately 300 years from the 14th century BC to the 11th century BC. The Yin Ruins have been thought to be the site of the capital of the Shang dynasty, but in recent years it has come to be understood as being the burial site of the Shang dynasty. In fact, the main components of the Yin Ruins are a group of burial sites centered around royal tombs, and a large number of artifacts have been excavated from the recently discovered tomb of an aristocratic woman known as "Fuhao" without any looting. Of the nearly 2,000 excavated objects, 468 were bronze objects, including a pair of large vessels such as the Simuxin Da Fangding (height 80 cm, weight 128 kg) and the Fu Hao Pair of Fang Yi (height 60 cm, weight 71 kg), which indicate the extent of the power of the Shang dynasty. The types of bronze objects excavated from this tomb, which is thought to date from a relatively early period in the late Shang dynasty, cover almost all of the period. New vessel shapes that were not seen in the mid-Shang dynasty include sake vessels such as the shi, si gong, bird and animal votive vessel, and bird and animal spirit vessel, as well as cups and mirrors, which were made during this period. In addition to musical instruments such as bells and gongs, tools, and weapons, a dustpan-shaped Fu Hao winnowing vessel was discovered, and although its purpose is unknown, it suggests that the tomb's owner was a woman. In addition to the taotie motif that has been used since the middle period, the main motifs are cicada and milk motifs, with thunder motifs filling in the gaps, and animals such as sheep, cows, tigers, elephants, birds, fish, frogs, and turtles are arranged, resulting in a complex and intricate composition.

The pottery moulding method was invented for the casting of bronze vessels, in which bronze pieces were arranged in a logical manner between the inner and outer casings, which were intricately assembled, and the entire casing was fixed in place, and molten bronze was poured into the gaps that were created. When an inscription was to be cast, the inscription was prepared in raised lines on the inner casing, and the design was engraved intaglio on the outer casing. The high level of knife engraving technique shown in the finished bronze vessels reached its apex in the late Shang period. Inscriptions began to be cast into bronze vessels from the late Shang period, and ranged from single characters to sentences of up to 30 characters in length. Many of these were pictorial inscriptions that did not form a sentence, such as clan symbols or ancestors' names written in the ten heavenly stems. It was from this period that the same inscriptions could be found on different vessels, such as Ding, Jue, Gu, Zun, and You, and they began to be produced as a set. Many of these bronze artifacts were produced against the backdrop of the immense power of the Shang Dynasty, and were likely symbols of that authority.

The Zhou (Western Zhou) dynasty, which was established after the Shang dynasty, inherited the bronze casting engineers that had been controlled by the former Shang royal family, and actively produced bronze vessels. They bestowed these vessels to subordinate feudal lords, establishing the power and authority of the new state. As a result, the bronze vessels of the early Western Zhou period have many common shapes and designs with those of the late Shang period, and even today it is difficult to distinguish them completely. However, as time went on, the characteristics of the Western period began to be expressed in the types and designs of vessels, such as the more popular production of tableware rather than the wine vessels that were popular in the Shang period. Serving grain was common in the early and middle Western Zhou periods, and was eventually replaced by shu and ho, but in the early Zhou period, the heads of strange beasts called 'kishou' were attached, and intimidating designs that emphasized the breast protrusions more than in the Shang period were preferred. Rib-shaped deities are also unique to the Western period. Bells appeared as musical instruments, and several vessels with different pitches were used for rituals and banquets. It was also during the Western Period that long inscriptions began to be cast. Some were several or even several hundred characters long, and were mostly examples of Western Zhou dynasty ceremonies and military merit awards in the early period, while in the middle and later periods there were more examples of investiture of officials, bestowal of carriages and uniforms, lawsuit letters, and vessels made by feudal lords. Also, in the early period, the same inscription was cast into different vessels as a set, but from the middle period onwards, sets of the same inscription on several vessels of the same type began to rapidly increase. It is thought that the advanced bronze casting technology that had been maintained with the backing of powerful authorities gradually spread to the feudal lord level as that power declined. After the fall of the Western Zhou dynasty, the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period began, but the technology that supported the production of bronze vessels was not only acquired after the fall of the Western Zhou dynasty, but also dated back to the Western Period.

From the Spring and Autumn period onwards, distinctive designs and patterns appeared in each region, and vessels generally became larger. New vessel types such as kan, trays, henko, tai, and junyu were added, and bronze vessels began to be made using the wax molding method. Gold and silver inlay also became common, and with the spread of ironware, decoration techniques changed and inscriptions began to be engraved. Banki patterns were favored as designs, but during the Warring States period, pictorial patterns depicting hunting and battle scenes appeared, indicating a change in the motivation for bronze vessel production. Bronze vessels from the Shang to the Western Zhou period were not only used for ancestral feasts, but the inscriptions cast into them also clearly indicated the relationship of dominance between the king and his subordinate clans and feudal lords. During the Spring and Autumn period, written descriptions of this relationship were no longer clearly stated, and the feudal lords who made the vessels maintained their own unique positions, reflected their tastes, and took pride in the vessels they made. Bronze vessels, known as "Yo ware," were given to brides as part of their dowries, and would have served to demonstrate the power of their families. Eventually, the notion of bronze vessels as "auspicious gold" was lost, and they were simply buried in tombs as "Meiki" vessels.

[Musha Sho]

Countries around China

The Bronze Age culture that developed in China spread to surrounding areas, especially after the Warring States period. In Korea, under the influence of the Bronze Age cultures of China and northern Eurasia, bronze artifacts began to appear from the 6th century BCE onwards. Weapons included daggers with handles, halberds, pikes, multi-cord mirrors, decorative metal fittings, and horse and carriage equipment.

Many of the bronze implements used in Japan's Yayoi period were imported from the Korean Peninsula. Swords, spears, and halberds were imported from the end of the early Yayoi period and were produced domestically from the late middle Yayoi period, changing their nature from practical items to ceremonial implements. Bronze bells are a type of bronze implement that developed uniquely in Japan, while mirrors have been traced back to the lineages of Han-style mirrors, mirrors with fine patterns made with many cords, and domestically produced imitation mirrors, making them important historical materials for determining the dates from the Yayoi period to the Kofun period and for investigating the characteristics of the eras.

[Musha Sho]

"Chinese Copperware" by Takayasu Higuchi (1967, Chuokoron-Bijutsu Shuppan)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

青銅でつくられた容器、楽器、利器、鏡、車馬具などを広くさす。厳密には銅に対して10％前後のスズを含む合金を青銅という。考古学的遺物としての青銅器は、厳密な意味での青銅だけでなく、鉛、ヒ素、アンチモン、ニッケルなどの金属が含有されている場合が多く、これらをも含めて一般に青銅器と称している。中国や日本では青銅製でも銅鼓(どうこ)、銅鐸(どうたく)などと称したように、単に銅器ともいう。

　銅は人類が発見し、利用したもっとも古い金属の一つである。しかし銅冶金(やきん)についての知識と技術を、いつ、どこで、どのような過程で獲得し、世界中に広まったのか現在でも明らかではない。一つの発祥地からおこって各地に伝播(でんぱ)していったとする一元説と、複数の発祥地を考える多元説とをめぐって論争が行われてきたが現在では、一つの発祥地からおこり、その後各地で別々に発展していったと想定されている。

　金属が歴史上、都市の成立と古代国家の形成に果たした役割は大きい。青銅器の場合、その製作のために専門工人集団を養い、必要とする鉱石、燃料を確保しうる社会集団が形成されていなければならない。食料の供給、労働の分業化を含めて、集団の組織化とその維持には、強大な権力が存在しなくては考えられない。古代オリエント世界においても、古代中国においても、このような社会の発展段階において青銅器が出現したのである。

［武者　章］

西アジア

メソポタミア地方では、紀元前五千年紀後半のハラフ期に銅製の短刀、ナイフ、釘(くぎ)、印章がみられるが、青銅器の出現は、ウバイド期（前4000ころ～前3400ころ）に入ってからである。大河の灌漑(かんがい)が組織的に行われ、大神殿を中核とする都市の原型が出そろったころでもあった。ジェムデト・ナスル期（前3100ころ～前2800ころ）以降の遺跡からは、短剣、斧(おの)、鑿(のみ)などの武器・工具のほかに容器類も出土するようになる。初期王朝時代に入ると、有茎の剣、槍(やり)先、半月形闘斧(とうふ)、鏃(やじり)、鋸(のこぎり)など武器・工具、ウシ・ワシ・ライオンの像や容器が数量・種類ともに豊富となって青銅器文化が高度に発達した。エジプトでも前4000年ころのバダリ期に銅製の針やピンがみられるが、前2000年ころまではほとんどスズを含まない銅製品がつくられていた。ゲルゼー期（前3400ころ～前3000ころ）には開放鋳型によって斧が鋳造され、古王国の第六王朝ペピ1世の像はろう型鋳造の早い例として著名である。エジプトにおいてスズを含んだ青銅器の製作は、ヒクソスが建てた第15王朝以降に本格化したと考えられている。

　西アジア世界で発達した青銅器文化は、やがて世界の各地に伝えられていく。ヨーロッパへの伝播は、前三千年紀の初頭にエーゲ海沿岸に始まり、ヨーロッパ東部から全ヨーロッパに普及して各地域で独特の発達を遂げた。鉄器時代に属するハルシュタット文化にも、青銅製の剣、有孔斧、鏃、容器、装飾品がみられる。イラン南西部のザーグロス山脈中に発達したルリスタン青銅器文化は、前二千年紀後半ごろから、短剣、鏃、闘斧などの武器や馬具、装身具、容器、祭祀(さいし)用品に動物意匠が巧みに装飾されたものを生み出している。北方ユーラシアでは前二千年紀以降、遊牧民族が残した青銅器文化が栄えた。前二千年紀前半にカザフスタンにおこったアンドロノボ文化には短剣、闘斧、有銎(きょう)斧がみられる。ミヌシンスクのカラスク文化、タガール文化、オルドスの綏遠(すいえん)青銅器文化などでも短剣、矛(ほこ)、斧、刀子(とうす)、鏃、馬具、帯金具などの青銅器がつくられたが、内反(うちぞ)りで動物像をあしらった青銅刀子は、これらの文化に共通に認められる特徴となっている。

［武者　章］

中国

中国の青銅器は殷(いん)・周時代にもっとも好んで製作され、とりわけ殷代後期のものは器形の種類、施された文様、技術の巧みさにおいて世界史上に比類ない発展を遂げた。現在でもこれら殷・周時代の青銅器は、美術的価値の高い工芸品として愛好されているばかりでなく、器形、文様や鋳出された銘文が当代の歴史を探究するうえで必須(ひっす)の同時代史料として、古くから研究されており、歴史学、考古学、金石学の主要な課題となっている。

　中国の青銅器がどのような契機からつくられ始めたか現在なお明らかでない。西アジア伝播説と中国発生説とにほぼ分かれ、決着をみていないが、すでに中国は竜山文化後期に高度な製陶技術をもっており、鋳銅技術獲得の道はほとんど準備されていたといえる。青銅器鋳造の始まりは竜山文化後期から殷代前期にかけての時期であると考えられているが、青銅器の出現は殷代前期からであり、河南省偃師(えんし)県二里頭遺跡から、武器である戈(か)・戚(せき)、工具の(ほん)・鑿(さく)などの小形の利器、楽器の鈴、爵(しゃく)とよばれる酒器の出土が報告されている。爵は殷から西周時代に至るまでつくられる中国の代表的な青銅容器であるが、殷前期の爵は薄手平底で、文様をもたない簡素な作りである。殷中期の河南省鄭州(ていしゅう)市白家荘や銘功路、輝県琉璃閣(るりかく)、湖北省盤竜城などの遺跡からも多くの青銅器が発見されており、種類も豊富で、文様も施されるようになる。煮炊き用の鼎(てい)・鬲鼎(れきてい)・鬲(れき)・甗(げん)、酒を温める爵・斝(か)・盉(か)、飲酒の器の觚(こ)、酒を盛る罍(らい)・方彝(ほうい)・壺(こ)・卣(ゆう)・尊(そん)・瓿(ほう)、穀物を盛る(き)・豆(とう)、水入れの盤(ばん)など多種の容器、戈・刀・鉞(えつ)・鏃(ぞく)・鏟(さん)などの武器や工具類、車馬具、人面もつくられ、これらに饕餮(とうてつ)文・夔(き)文・円渦(えんか)文など殷・周時代の基本的な文様が施されて、その器腹を飾るようになる。

　殷代後期は河南省安陽県小屯村のいわゆる殷墟(いんきょ)出土の遺物を標準とする時期で、中国が本格的な青銅器時代を迎え、製作技術が最高度に発達した時期でもある。およそ前14世紀から前11世紀に至る300年ほどがこれにあたる。殷墟は殷王朝の都址(とし)であると考えられてきたが、近年は殷王朝の墓葬地域であろうと理解されつつある。事実、殷墟は、王墓を中心とする墓葬群がその主要構成遺跡であり、最近発見された「婦好」とよばれる貴族の女性墓からおびただしい遺物が盗掘を受けずに出土した。2000点に近い出土器物のうち青銅器は468点を数え、なかでも司母辛大方鼎(ほうてい)（高さ80センチメートル、重量128キログラム）一対、婦好偶方彝（高さ60センチメートル、重量71キログラム）などの大型の器を残しており、殷王朝における勢力の大きさをうかがわせる。殷後期の比較的早い時期と考えられるこの墓出土青銅器の種類は、この時代のものをほぼ網羅している。殷中期にみられず、新たに出現した器形として、觶(し)・兕觥(じこう)・鳥獣卣・鳥獣尊などの酒器類、盂(う)・鏡もこの時期からつくられる。楽器の鐃(どう)・鉦(しょう)や工具・武器類のほかに、ちり取り形の婦好箕形(きけい)器が発見されており、その用途は不明ながらも墓の主が女性であることを思わせるものである。文様は中期以来の饕餮文のほかに、蝉(ぜん)文、乳文を主文様とし間隙(かんげき)を雷(らい)文で埋め、あるいはヒツジ・ウシ・トラ・ゾウ・トリ・サカナ・カエル・カメなどの動物を配しながら複雑で精緻(せいち)な構成となっている。

　青銅器の鋳成には陶模(とうも)法が考案され、内笵(ないはん)と、複雑に組み合わされてなる外笵との間に青銅片を合理的に配置し、笵全体を固定させて、そのできたすきまに溶解した青銅を流し込むという方法がとられた。銘文が鋳込まれる場合には内笵に凸線で銘が用意され、文様は外笵に陰刻された。青銅器の鋳上りに示された刀刻技術の高さは、殷後期にその頂点を極めたといえよう。殷後期から青銅器に銘が鋳込まれ始めるが、単字のものから長くて30字程度の文章で、その多くは文を構成しない図象銘とよばれる氏族のシンボルマークとか、父祖の名を十干(じっかん)名で記す例が多い。同一の銘が鼎、爵、觚、尊、、卣など異なる器種にみられ、セットとして製作されるようになるのもこの時期からである。このような青銅器の多くは、殷王朝の強大な権力を背景として製作されたものであり、その権威を象徴するものでもあったろう。

　殷ののち成立した周（西周）王朝は、旧殷王室が支配していた青銅器鋳造技術者たちを継承して盛んに青銅器を製作し、服属諸侯にそれらを下賜して新たな国家の権力と権威を確立させていった結果、西周前期の青銅器は、殷末のそれと器形、文様に共通性が多く、現在でもその区別が完全にできていない。しかしながら、殷代に盛んにつくられた酒器の類より、食器が盛んにつくられるなど、西周期の特徴が、時代が下がるにつれて器の種類や文様にも表現されるようになる。穀物を盛るは西周前・中期によくみられ、やがて盨(しゅ)、簠(ほ)にとってかわられるが、周初のには犠首とよぶ奇獣の頭部が取り付けられ、乳という突起を殷代より強調した威圧的なデザインのものが好まれた。觶形尊も西周期に特有なものである。楽器では鐘(しょう)が現れ、音程の異なる数器が祭祀饗宴(きょうえん)に使われた。長文の銘が鋳込まれるようになるのも西周期からである。数十字から数百字にわたるものもあり、西周王朝の儀礼、軍功の賞賜の例が前期に多く、中・後期になると官職の叙任、車服の賜与、訴訟の文、諸侯の自作器の例が増えてくる。また同一銘文を異なる器種に鋳銘するセットでの製作が前期にみられるが、中期以降になると一つの器種に数器の同一銘文をもつセットが急速に増え始める。強力な権力を背景として維持されていた高度な鋳銅技術も、その権力の衰退とともに徐々に諸侯レベルに拡散する道をたどったと考えられる。西周王朝の滅亡ののち、春秋戦国時代を迎えるが、青銅器製作を支えた技術は、西周王朝滅亡後獲得されたのみならず、西周期にまでさかのぼるものでもあった。

　春秋期以降は、特有のデザイン、文様が地方ごとに現れ、器は一般に大型化する。新たに鑑(かん)・盆・扁壺(へんこ)・敦(たい)・錞于(じゅんう)などの器種が加わり、ろう型法を用いて青銅器がつくられ始める。金・銀の象眼(ぞうがん)も行われるようになり、鉄器の普及と相まって施文技術も変化し、銘文も刻銘されるようになる。文様としては蟠虺(ばんき)文が好まれたが、戦国期になると狩猟・戦闘の場面を表現する画像文が現れ、それは青銅器製作の動機の変容を示すものである。殷代から西周時代にかけての青銅器は、祖先の祭祀饗宴に用いられるばかりでなく、それに鋳込まれた銘文によって、王とその服属諸氏族、諸侯との明確な支配関係を示すものでもあった。春秋期には、その関係を示す文面は明記されることがなくなり、作器者である諸侯独自の立場が貫かれ、その嗜好(しこう)を反映し、自作器であることを誇るようになる。媵(よう)器とよばれる青銅器は、嫁入り道具の一つとして婚家へ持たされたもので、自家の勢力の誇示にも役だつものであったろう。やがて青銅器は「吉金(きっきん)」としての意識も失われ、明器(めいき)として墳墓へ埋められるだけになる。

［武者　章］

中国周辺の国

中国において発達した青銅器文化は、とくに戦国期以降、周辺諸地域に波及していった。朝鮮では中国や北方ユーラシア青銅器文化の影響の下に前6世紀以降青銅器がみられるようになる。武器では有茎の短剣、戈(か)、矛(ぼう)や多紐(たちゅう)鏡、飾金具、車馬具などがある。

　日本の弥生(やよい)時代の青銅器の多くは朝鮮半島から渡来したものが使用された。剣、矛、戈は弥生前期末以後舶載され、中期後半から国産化されるとともに、実用品から儀器へとその性格が変容した。銅鐸(どうたく)は日本独自の発達を遂げた青銅器だが、鏡は、漢式鏡、多紐細文鏡、国産の仿製(ぼうせい)鏡などの系統がたどられており、弥生時代から古墳時代にかけての年代決定や時代の性格の究明に重要な史料となっている。

［武者　章］

『樋口隆康著『中国の銅器』（1967・中央公論美術出版）』

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

<<: Bronze Age

>>: The Era of the Righteous Caliphs - Seitokarifujidai