Neo-Confucianism

Japanese: 朱子学 - しゅしがく

A new Confucianism was established by Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi) of the Southern Song Dynasty in China. In order to overcome and compete with Buddhism and Taoism, which dominated the world of thought from the Six Dynasties to the Sui and Tang periods, Zhu Xi sought to break away from the traditional study of chapters and verses, which had fallen into a somewhat cumbersome and empty commentary on words and phrases, and instead sought to clarify the true spirit of the classics and the true intentions of Confucius and Mencius. This was the perfection of Song Confucianism. His theory is a compilation of the theories of Zhou Dunyi, Zhang Zai, Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi and the Taoists of the Northern Song Dynasty, and is a successor and development of the theories of the two Chengs (especially Cheng Yi) (hence it is also called the Cheng-Zhu school). According to Zhu Xi, Zhou, Zhang and the two Chengs restored the true "Tao" (the Tao tradition) that had been transmitted to sages since Yao and Shun, leading to Confucius, and that had been cut off after Mencius (Meng Ke), who correctly explained the teachings of Confucius (Kongqiu), and Zhu Xi himself intended to be its successor. In close connection with the theory of the Taoist tradition, he recognized the transmission of Confucianism from Confucius, Zengzi, Zisi, and Mencius, and valued the Four Books, considered the purpose and process of learning in them, and made them into a book for the introduction and stepping stone to the Five Classics. He also added annotations to the Four Books (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books), and studied the scriptures widely and attempted to reinterpret them (this is called a new annotation).

[Akira Oshima]

Ideological characteristics

In terms of his ideological theory, it is noteworthy that he established the study of reason, qi, and mind (also called the theory of spirituality) while being influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. It was unprecedented to have completed a systematic theoretical system that ranged from theories of generation and ontology to theories of mind and nature and self-cultivation, with reason and qi as the two pillars. From Zhu Xi to the mid-Qing Dynasty, not only those who belonged to the Neo-Confucian school, but also those who opposed it, all used Zhu Xi's theory as their foundation and starting point. In particular, the idea of reason was influenced by Cheng Yi, and the idea of qi by Zhang Zai. The physical qi is the source that forms matter, and all things are generated by the interaction and combination of yin and yang and the five elements with the flow of qi. The metaphysical ri is explained as the reason for the existence of things (the basis for the existence of things), the rule of what should be done (the aspect of what things should be, especially the norms of morality), and even as reason. All things are formed by Qi and endowed with reason, and our true nature is prepared by reason ("nature is reason"). Humans should aim to fully express their true nature by removing the inhibitions of the temperament that forms the body, and the techniques for achieving this are to sit in reverence and to study the truth (kakubutsu chichi). In principle, Li and Qi are interdependent and exist simultaneously, but because Li has the character of being the principle of existence, the order of Li and Qi is an issue, and Li is considered to be superior. In other words, Li is the fundamental principle that a priori determines the existence of things, and is also a moral law, so it functions as a philosophical norm. Since Zhu Xi, various ideas have been put forward regarding the nature of Li and the relationship between Li and Qi.

[Akira Oshima]

The rise of Neo-Confucianism and its influence

Neo-Confucianism was persecuted as a false sect in Zhu Xi's later years, but after his death its reputation was rehabilitated and it began to make its way into the official academic world. During the Yongle period of the Ming dynasty (1403-1424), the "Complete Guide to the Four Books and Five Classics" and "Complete Guide to Nature and Principles" were compiled and used in the imperial examinations, and Neo-Confucianism's orthodox status continued until the end of the Qing dynasty. In Korea, Neo-Confucianism reached its height in the second half of the 16th century with the emergence of Yi Toegye and Yi Yulgok, and theoretical debates also took place. Neo-Confucianism was introduced to Japan in the Kamakura period and studied by Zen monks, and eventually flourished in the early Edo period with the emergence of Fujiwara Seika, Hayashi Razan, Yamazaki Ansai and others.

[Akira Oshima]

"The Complete Series of Neo-Confucianism, Volume 1: An Introduction to Neo-Confucianism" (1974, Meitoku Publishing)" ▽ "Neo-Confucianism and Yangmingism, by Kenji Shimada (Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "The Intellectual Heritage of Mankind 19: Neo-Confucianism, by Kunio Miura (1979, Kodansha)"

[Reference Items] | Gumo Chichi | Jujing Pili | Neo-Confucian School | Song Dynasty

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国、南宋(なんそう)の朱熹(しゅき)（朱子）によって築き上げられた新しい儒学。六朝(りくちょう)時代から隋唐(ずいとう)時代の思想界を席巻(せっけん)した仏教・道教に対抗してこれを乗り越えるべく、ややもすると煩瑣(はんさ)にして空虚なる字句注釈に陥った旧来の章句の学からの脱却を図り、改めて経書の真精神、孔孟(こうもう)の真に意図するところを明らかにしようという宋代儒学の完成したものである。その学説は、北宋(ほくそう)の周敦頤(しゅうとんい)、張載(ちょうさい)、程顥(ていこう)、程頤(ていい)およびその学統に連なる道学者の学説を集大成し、とくに二程（とりわけ程頤）の学統を引き、その説を継承発展させたものである（したがって程朱学ともよぶ）。朱熹によれば、周張二程らは、堯(ぎょう)・舜(しゅん)以来聖人に伝授されて孔子に至り、さらに孔子（孔丘(こうきゅう)）の教えを正しく祖述した孟子(もうし)（孟軻(もうか)）以後断絶してしまった真の「道」をふたたび復興したもので（道統の説）、朱熹自身その継承者たらんとするものであった。かかる道統の説と密接な関連をもって、すなわち孔子、曽子(そうし)、子思、孟子という儒学の伝授を認めて四書(ししょ)を重んじ、これに学問の目的とその次第を考え、五経の入門・階梯(かいてい)の書とした。そして四書に注釈を加えるとともに（『四書集註(しっちゅう)』）、広く経典を研究しその再解釈を試みた（これを新注という）。

［大島　晃］

思想的特徴

その思想理論上、特筆すべきは、仏教・道教の影響を受けながら理気心性の学を樹立したことである（性理学ともいう）。理と気とを2本の柱として生成論・存在論から心性論・修養論にわたった整然たる理論体系を完成したことは空前絶後のことで、朱熹以後、清(しん)代中期に至るまで朱子学派に属する人々はもちろんのこと、これに反対する人々もみな朱熹の理論を土台とし出発点としている。とくに理の思想は程頤、気の思想は張載の影響を受けている。形而下(けいじか)なる気は物質を形成する根源、一気の流行に伴い陰陽・五行の交感、結合によって万物が生成される。形而上なる理は所以然(しょいぜん)の故(こ)（事物の存在の根拠）、所当然(しょとうぜん)の則(そく)（事物の当為としての面とくに道徳の規範）さらに条理とも説明される。あらゆる事物は気によって形成され理が賦与されており、本性は理を受けて備わる（「性即理」という）。人間は肉体を形成する気質の阻害を除去してこの本性の十全なる発現を目ざすべきで、それに向けてのくふうが居敬(きょけい)と窮理(きゅうり)（格物致知(かくぶつちち)）であった。なお理気は原則的に相互依存・同時存在の関係にあるが、理が存在の原理としての性格をもつことから理気の先後が問題にされ、理のほうが優越して考えられている。つまり理はア・プリオリ（先天的）に事物の存在を規定する根本原理であり、しかも道徳的法則でもあるから、名教的規範として機能した。朱熹以後、かかる理の性格や理気の関係をめぐり、さまざまな考え方が出されることになった。

［大島　晃］

朱子学の隆盛とその影響

朱子学は朱熹の晩年には偽学として圧迫されたが、死後名誉回復がなされ、官学への道を歩み始めた。明(みん)の永楽(えいらく)年間（1403～24）に『四書・五経大全』『性理大全』が編集されて科挙の試験に用いられ、朱子学の正統的地位は清末まで続いた。朝鮮では李退渓(りたいけい)、李栗谷(りりつこく)が出て16世紀後半に朱子学全盛期を迎え、学理上の論争も行われた。わが国には鎌倉時代に伝来し、禅僧によって研究され、やがて江戸初期、藤原惺窩(せいか)、林羅山(らざん)、山崎闇斎(あんさい)らが現れて隆盛に向かった。

［大島　晃］

『『朱子学大系　第1巻　朱子学入門』（1974・明徳出版社）』▽『島田虔次著『朱子学と陽明学』（岩波新書）』▽『三浦国雄著『人類の知的遺産19　朱子』（1979・講談社）』

[参照項目] | 格物致知 | 居敬窮理 | 朱子学派 | 宋学

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