Public finance (English)

Japanese: 財政 - ざいせい(英語表記)public finance 英語
Public finance (English)

Finances refer to the revenues and expenditures associated with the public activities of national and local governments over the course of a year, expressed in monetary terms. The scale of finances varies depending on each country's political system, the level of public demand for public services, and the tax system.

[Udagawa Akihito]

The political element of finance

National Finances

In a democracy, the driving force behind financial activity is the public's demand for public services. To meet the public's demands, a government is formed through a vote by the people. If government activities are initiated in the direction desired by the public, the public will agree to bear the costs arising from public activities. Conversely, if government activities and tax burdens deviate from the public's desires, political competition through elections begins between political parties for the support of the public.

So why do people ask the government to take financial action? Most economic systems in democracies are market economies, and the production, distribution, and expenditure of national income are largely determined by the market. First, basic and minimum government activities require the recognition of private property, a legal system that facilitates market transactions, a judicial police system, and foreign affairs. Public works projects such as road network construction, embankment construction, and forest and flood control are then undertaken. These public goods and services are called public goods. Since public goods are intended to be used jointly by the people, no one personally orders public goods in the market. This is different from buying something for one's own use in the market. On the other hand, goods that can be bought in the market for one's own use are called private goods. If there are no individuals who order public goods in the market, no one will be able to provide them to individuals. For these reasons, each person will request public goods from the government.

In addition to the purely public goods mentioned above, there are other goods and services that can be privately supplied in the market and bring about fairly large external economic effects. These include insurance and security for education, medical care, and endowment, pensions, and livelihood assistance for the socially vulnerable, such as children, the elderly, and the disabled. When sufficient supply cannot be obtained from the market (individual activities), the public with such demand will request government action. Since the market has external diseconomies in addition to the external economies mentioned above, it will request the government to regulate pollution, etc.

It is natural that people feel uncomfortable about the income inequality between individuals that arise from the market. Regarding the tax system on the income side, they also demand that the government adopt a progressive tax system (ability-to-pay tax principle) in which tax burdens are based on ability.

If the government does not respond well to the demands of the people, political competition between opposing parties will begin. The party that accepts the demands of the people will win, which can be said to be the "prototype" of political and financial activities in a democracy.

However, in a democratic political system, when a standing bureaucracy is involved to carry out administrative tasks, complex problems arise with the prototype.

Certainly, political and financial issues become clear from the demands of the people and the responses of politicians. However, even if the issues are recognized, politicians in the legislative branch (Diet) do not have sufficient knowledge to institutionalize them into something that can be implemented as an administrative system. The legislative branch alone cannot draft bills that adequately address issues, allocate tasks among ministries and agencies, or estimate project costs. On the other hand, the style of construction work changes with technological advances, and costs increase or decrease due to changes in construction methods and materials. The adoption and decision-making of these issues is left to the bureaucratic organization.

Bureaucrats are government-run monopolies. They have no competitors. The public's demands are not expressed precisely, and the politicians who accept them do not have a precise understanding of the issues. Both purchasers (the public and politicians) are faced with a group of bureaucrats who are the monopoly supplier, and the result can be said to be dominated by the asking price and supply volume of the monopoly supplier who has administrative capacity and accurate information on administrative costs. When divided into individual ministry administrations, the cost of implementing the tasks given to politicians by the public and the scale of administration are determined by the dominance of the bureaucratic organization's preferences.

There are other cases where the "architecture" of democracy collapses. This is due to the nature of the people, politicians, and bureaucrats, all of which are ordinary human beings. Although financial activities have an impact far into the future, they tend to view the benefits and burdens of financial activities in a short-sighted manner without foreseeing the future (and because it is difficult to foresee it). The people want public services, but they want to receive the benefits without having to bear the burden and have someone else bear it. This behavior is called "free riding." This free riding is what everyone wants. Therefore, everyone tries to avoid the tax burden. Politicians also know the people's intentions well, so even though tax burdens are necessary, they keep quiet about it and promise to provide public services. Otherwise, they will not be able to win the political competition with the opposing parties. The ministries in charge of public services welcome the increase in public services promised by politicians. The Ministry of Finance, which is in charge of balancing the fiscal balance, is also unable to resist the voices of many groups, including the people, politicians, and related ministries. Thus, when free-riding and short-sighted profit-making strategies are adopted by groups in a country, the simplest outcome is that they resort to debt to finance the expansion of the country's financial activities. Once debt is issued, these groups get used to it, making it very difficult to balance the budget by raising taxes or cutting public services.

[Udagawa Akihito]

Local Government Finance

In all modern nations, people have long lived, lived, and conducted their economic activities in communities. Even before the nation adopted a democratic political system, local administrative divisions called "Country of XX" or "Prefecture of XX" existed, such as "Mikawa Province." Residents in each region wanted the provision of local public goods, knowing that there were regional limits to the benefits of public services. A nation's politics and finances were made up of the politics and finances of the central government and each region. The most obvious example of this is the existence of 13 states before the United States gained independence and established a federal system. Under a democracy, local divisions become local public entities, and the "original model" is one in which national politics and local autonomy coexist.

After the Second World War, Carl Shoup, who gave advice on the financial and tax systems of the Japanese national and local governments, stated that "local government is a school of democracy." The Japanese people, who had never experienced democracy before the war, refused to enter this "school of democracy" when it came to financial management. Although the constitution requires that local government heads and assembly representatives be elected by local residents, Shoup's proposal for free choice of resident tax rates was not realized, and the national subsidy system, which Shoup called for its abolition as it "makes the administration irresponsible," remains in place to this day. As a result, apart from the local allocation tax grants that Shoup called for, Japanese local finances remain centered on the realization of the "standard financial needs" of each local government set by the national government, with the national government providing the financial resources.

[Udagawa Akihito]

Accounting system for financial balance

If the government does not own assets or operate public enterprises, the only revenues for the country are taxes and public bonds, and public expenditures must be made with these. A single accounting system that records these revenues and expenditures is sufficient for financial accounting. The accounting system that records these tax revenues and public bonds and shows basic expenditures is called the general account.

Japan's general account discloses expenditures in three ways. The first method classifies and displays expenditures by important expense category, allowing one to understand the state of government activity in each era. The second method displays expenditures by jurisdiction (by ministry). The third method displays expenditures by purpose, dividing them into personnel expenses, property expenses, subsidies, transfers to other accounts, etc. From the third display method, it can be inferred that a significant portion of the work of Japan's central government is the administration of subsidies to local governments, etc.

Since the beginning of the Meiji era in Japan, the state has been handling postal services and postal savings, running the national railways, and even owning colonies. Special accounts were needed to clearly record the income and expenses of these special businesses.

After World War II, in addition to the special accounts that had existed for many years, public works projects such as road construction, forestry and flood control were transferred to special accounts. This was because public investment had traditionally been funded by taxes, but after the war, flexibility clauses and special provisions were established as special provisions for special accounts. These provisions were strongly demanded by the ministries in charge of public investment in order to secure and continue budgets. The Road Special Account and the Forestry and Flood Control Special Account are representative examples. In recent years, the reserve funds of special accounts have become the subject of discussion as so-called "hidden treasures," which stems from the accumulation of funds through the flexibility clauses and special provisions of special accounts. Among the special accounts established after World War II, the Local Allocation Tax Special Account is unique. This was established by the Shoup recommendations, and as of 2009, about 30% of the five national taxes (income tax, corporation tax, liquor tax, consumption tax, and tobacco tax) are transferred to this account and distributed to prefectures and municipalities to make up the difference between the standard financial needs and standard financial revenues set by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Local allocation taxes differ from subsidies from the national government in that they can be used as general financial resources like local taxes, and so are of great interest to local organizations.

After the Second World War, many government-funded public corporations were established in Japan with the aim of economic recovery and stabilizing the lives of the people. Public corporations can be broadly divided into government banks known as financial corporations (Japan Housing Loan Corporation, Japan Development Bank, etc.) and government enterprises known as public corporations and public corporations (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation, Japan Housing Corporation, Japan Highway Public Corporation, Japan National Railways, Japan Railway Construction Public Corporation, etc.). Where did the government get the funds to lend to these banks and enterprises? It was from funds such as postal savings and pension reserve funds that were required to be deposited with the Ministry of Finance (Fund Management Department). In this way, all financial activities, including government investment in government financial institutions, public corporations and public corporations, government loans to these public corporations, bond issues by public corporations, direct business activities of public corporations, and loans from public corporations to the private sector, are called "fiscal investment and loan." When fiscal investment and loan are included, the government's financial activities are extremely broad, and the true movement of financial funds cannot be revealed without looking at all of the accounts.

However, toward the end of the Showa era, the Nakasone Yasuhiro administration privatized the Japanese National Railways and Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation, and in the Heisei era, the Koizumi Junichiro administration privatized the postal service, which brought about major changes in FILP. First, the requirement to deposit postal savings and pension reserve funds with the Fund Management Department was abolished. These two funds were made available to privatized companies to manage in full (market management). After that, the number of special corporations was reduced through reorganization, consolidation, and abolition. Therefore, after this, FILP was simply for the remaining special corporations to issue publicly offered bonds without government guarantees in the financial market, or for the government to issue government bonds (FILP bonds) to raise funds in the market and then lend them out. As a result, the annual FILP plan for fiscal 2008 was reduced to 13 trillion yen, one-third of the peak amount in fiscal 1996.

There are approximately 1,800 local government entities, including prefectures and cities, towns, and villages. The accounting systems of local government entities are uniformly determined by the Local Autonomy Act, and are divided into general accounts and special accounts. Special accounts include those that are required by national laws and regulations and those that are established voluntarily. In order to obtain a unified understanding of local finances, uniform standards have been established to classify all local government accounts into ordinary accounts and public enterprise accounts as statistical categories.

Ordinary accounts are the sum of general accounts and special accounts excluding public enterprise accounts. Usually, when local government finance is mentioned, it refers to ordinary accounts, which correspond to the national general accounts.

Public business accounting is divided into public enterprise accounting (water supply and sewerage, transportation, electricity, gas, hospitals, parking lot development, etc.), profit-making business accounting (horse racing, bicycle racing, lottery, etc.), national health insurance business accounting, elderly health care business accounting, and long-term care insurance business accounting.

The latest "Local Government Finance Plan," which treats the approximately 1,800 local governments as one financial entity, shows the following revenues and expenditures for local government ordinary accounts. The "Local Government Finance Plan" is a plan that the Cabinet submits to the Diet in February each year, taking into account local government financial revenue and expenditure forecasts, which are usually made around December, local government financial policies, and the national general account. According to the Local Government Finance Plan for fiscal 2008, "expenditure" items include salary-related expenses, investment expenses (divided into direct/subsidized and separate), general administrative expenses (divided into subsidized and separate), public bond expenses, transfers to public enterprises, and others. "Revenue" items include local allocation tax, local taxes, etc., national treasury disbursements (subsidies to local governments from the national government), local bonds, and others.

[Udagawa Akihito]

Japan's Financial Developments after the Second World War

(1) Democratization and Postwar Reconstruction [1945-1964 (Showa 20-39)]

Based on the Constitution of Japan, citizens from all walks of life voted to create a postwar government. The government's tasks were to wipe out the prewar system, eradicate the inflation that had developed toward the end of the war, and work toward postwar reconstruction. The zaibatsu conglomerates were dissolved, farmland reform was implemented, and labor unions were freed to form. To combat inflation, the occupying forces allowed only balanced budgets, which put a stop to the leaking of currency, the root cause of inflation. To support postwar reconstruction, the exchange rate was set at 1 dollar = 360 yen, and companies worked hard to reduce production costs in order to overcome this hurdle and survive. The general account maintained a balanced budget for a long period of 18 years, from fiscal 1947 (Showa 22) to fiscal 1964. This was unprecedented in the history of finance since the Meiji era.

[Udagawa Akihito]

(2) Resumption of government bond issuance and introduction of consumption tax [1965-1989 (Showa 40-Heisei 1)]

Government bonds have been issued since the 1964 supplementary budget and continue to be issued to this day. The reasons for this are the recession caused by monetary tightening and the government's underestimation of tax revenue. Each government tried to restore a balanced budget after that, but the world demanded a revaluation of the yen and the oil crisis occurred, and the government continued to run deficit budgets. The Kakuei Tanaka administration during this period reversed its stance and tried to expand public works in Japan even if it increased the deficit. The Ministry of Finance (at the time) tried to introduce a large consumption tax as a source of funds to reduce the deficit, but the public opposed it and the ruling party was defeated in the general election. Public opposition to the consumption tax was strong, and the next administration, Yasuhiro Nakasone, also failed to introduce it, and the next administration, Noboru Takeshita, forced a majority vote in the Diet and introduced it in April 1989 (Heisei 1).

[Udagawa Akihito]

(3) Japan’s Stock Economy and the Collapse of the Bubble Economy [1989-2001 (Heisei 1-13)]

Since the 1980s, Japan has been subject to fiscal constraints due to its budget deficit, and the only way to expand domestic demand has been through monetary policy, with low interest rates and a high money supply. With an excess of money, land speculation began. The income tax reform implemented before that, abolishing the Maruyū system, encouraged speculation in land and stocks rather than deposits, resulting in the so-called bubble.

However, from 1990, monetary tightening began in an attempt to curb soaring land prices. The rise in interest rates had a major impact on the profits of the real estate industry, which had been increasing its borrowings. This also caused losses in the financial industry, which rushed to lend out real estate. Land prices also fell rapidly, and the disposal of bad loans became a major issue for the financial industry at that time. The government injected public funds into major banks to rescue them.

[Udagawa Akihito]

(4) Period of fiscal structural reform [2001 and after]

The Junichiro Koizumi Cabinet was formed during a period of economic stagnation. The Koizumi Cabinet's motto was "From public to private, give what local governments can to local governments." One of the projects implemented by the Koizumi Cabinet was the privatization of the postal service. Until then, Japan Post had focused on two businesses: postal services and postal savings, but through division and privatization, these two businesses were transferred to separate corporations. Because postal privatization meant a reduction in national funds, the long-standing "fiscal investment and loan" system was scaled back.

Under the name of the "Trinity Reform," the Koizumi Cabinet implemented the transfer of tax sources from income tax to local resident tax, the reduction of local allocation tax, and the reduction of subsidy administration to local governments. However, the centralization of finances has been maintained since the Meiji era, and some central bureaucrats and politicians still cling to the old system. There are also opinions that local governments incur higher administrative costs due to diversity than simple centralization of public services, and that this will slow economic growth, so we must admit that there is still a long way to go before decentralization is realized.

[Udagawa Akihito]

Ministry of Home Affairs, Financial Bureau, ed., The Structure of Local Government Finance and the Actual State of Its Management (1978, Local Finance Association)Ihori Toshihiro, The Correct Way to Think about Fiscal Deficits: Why is Government Debt a Problem (2000, Toyo Keizai Inc.)Ito Mitsutoshi, Tanaka Aiji, and Mabuchi Masaru, Political Process Theory (2000, Yuhikaku)Konishi Sunachio, The Political Economy of Local Government Finance Reform: Designing a System that Makes Use of the Spirit of Mutual Aid (2007, Yuhikaku)Kaizuka Hiroaki and Anne O. Kruger, eds., Strategies for Avoiding Japan's Financial Collapse (2007, Nihon Keizai Shimbun Publishing Inc.)Ishi Hiromitsu, A History of Modern Tax Reform: From the End of the War to the Collapse of the Bubble Economy (2008, Toyo Keizai Inc.) ▽ Illustrated Guide to Japan's Finances, Annual Editions (Toyo Keizai Inc.)Illustrated Guide to Japan's Finances, Annual Editions (Toyo Keizai Inc.) "Japan's Tax System," Annual Edition (Zaikei Shohosha)""Toru Nakazato, House of Councillors Budget Committee Research Office, Illustrated Economic and Fiscal Data Book, Annual Edition (Gakuyo Shobo)"

[References] | Public debt | Fiscal policy | Fiscal investment and loan program | Market | Shoup recommendations | Consumption tax | Local governments | Local finance | Democracy

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

財政とは1年間の国や地方公共団体の公共活動に伴う収入・支出を貨幣金額で表したものをいう。その規模は各国の政治形態、国民の公共サービスへの要求の程度、租税制度により異なる。

[宇田川璋仁]

財政の政治的要素

国の財政

デモクラシー(民主国家)の下で財政活動が始まる原動力は、公共サービスに対する国民の需要である。国民の需要に応じるために、国民による投票を通じて政府が形成される。国民が要望する方向に政府活動が始動される場合、国民は公共活動から生じる費用の負担を納得する。反対に、政府活動や租税負担が国民の要望から離れた場合、国民の支持をめぐり政党間で選挙による政治競争が始まる。

 では、国民はなぜ政府に財政活動を求めるのか。デモクラシーの経済制度の大部分は市場経済であり、国民所得の生産・分配・支出も大部分が市場で決定される。まず、基礎的で最小限の政府活動として、私有財産の認定、市場取引を円滑にする法制度、司法警察の制度、外交担当が要請される。その上で、道路網整備、護岸工事、治山・治水などの公共事業が開始される。これら公共のための財・サービスは公共財とよばれる。公共財は、国民の共同利用に供するという性格を旨とするため、個人的に市場で公共財を注文する者はいない。市場で自分専用の物を買うこととは異なる。一方、市場で買うことのできる自分専用の財を私的財という。公共財を市場で発注する個人がいなければ個人への供給者も現れない。こうした理由から、各人は公共財を政府に要望することになる。

 なお、先述した純粋な公共財のほか、市場での私的供給が可能であり、かなり大きな外部経済効果をもたらす財やサービスがある。教育、医療、養老などに関する保険・保障、年金、児童・高齢者・障害者などの社会的弱者に対する生活扶助などがそれにあたる。市場(個人活動)から十分な供給が受け取れない場合、こうした需要をもつ国民層からは政府活動への要望が生じる。市場には前述の外部経済のほかに外部不経済があるから、公害規制などが政府へ要望される。

 市場から発生する個人間の所得不平等に対して、国民から不快感が発生するのは当然である。収入側の租税制度についても、租税負担を能力に応じて行う累進税制(応能租税原則)が政府への要求となる。

 以上のような国民の側からの要求に対して政府の側からの対応が乏しければ、対立政党間の政治競争が始まる。国民の要求を受け入れる政党が勝利するというのがデモクラシーの政治・財政活動の「原型」といえる。

 しかし、デモクラシーの政治下で、行政を執行する常備の官僚制度が介在すると、「原型」に複雑な問題が生じてくる。

 確かに、国民の要求と政治家の対応のなかから政治・財政の課題は明らかになる。だが、課題を認識したとしても、立法府(国会)にいる政治家は、それを行政のシステムとして実施可能なものに制度化する知識を十分にもっていない。課題に適確に対応する法案の作成、各省庁間での任務の分担、事業コストの推計などは立法府だけではできない。他方で、技術進歩とともに諸工事の様式も変化し、工法や資材等の変革によりコストも増減する。これらの採択・決定は官僚機構にゆだねられる。

 官僚は官営の独占者である。その競争相手は存在しない。国民の需要の表現は厳密なものでなく、それを受け入れた政治家の課題認識も厳密なものでない。両発注者(国民と政治家)が独占供給者である官僚群と向き合うことになるが、その結果は行政能力をもち、正確な行政コストの情報をもつ独占供給者の言い値と供給量が支配するとみてよい。個々の各省行政に分割されると、国民から政治家への課題を実施するコストとその行政規模は、官僚機構の選好の優位のうちに決定される。

 デモクラシーの「原型」が崩れる場合がほかにもある。それは、国民と政治家と官僚の、どのグループも普通の人間の集団だという性格から生じる。それは、財政活動は遠い将来にまでその影響を及ぼすにもかかわらず、将来を見通すことなく(また見通すこともむずかしいので)財政活動からの受益と負担を近視眼的にとらえようとするということである。国民は公共サービスを要望するが、その負担を背負わずにだれか他人に負担させて便益だけを受けたいと望む。この行為を「フリー・ライダー」という。このフリー・ライダーは、だれもが望むことである。したがって、だれもが税負担から逃げようとする。政治家も国民の意向をよく知っているから、税負担が必要であるにもかかわらず、そのことには口を閉ざし公共サービスの提供を約束する。そうでなければ、対立する政党との政治競争に勝てない。公共サービス担当の各省は、政治家が約束する公共サービスの増大を歓迎する。財政収支の均衡化を担当する財務担当省も、国民・政治家・関係各省などの多数グループの声に抵抗しきれない。このようにして、フリー・ライダー志望と近視眼的利得計算が国の各グループに及ぶと、そのもっとも単純な結末は国の財政活動の拡大のための財源を公債に求めることである。ひとたび公債発行に踏み切れば、各グループともその味が忘れられなくなり、増税ないし公共サービスの削減による財政収支の均衡化を非常にむずかしくする。

[宇田川璋仁]

地方財政

いずれの近代国家も、昔から人々は居住、日常生活、経済活動を地域ごとに集合して営んでいた。その国家がデモクラシーの政治体制をとる以前から、たとえば「三河(みかわ)の国」のように、○○の国や○○県などとよぶ地方行政区画が存在していた。各地の住民は、公共サービスの受益には地域的限度があることを知りつつ、地方の公共財の提供を欲した。一国の政治・財政は、中央政府と地方それぞれの政治・財政から成り立っていた。そのもっとも顕著な例は、アメリカが独立し連邦制が成立する以前に13州が存在したことである。デモクラシーの下では地方区画は地方公共団体となり、国の政治と地方自治とが共存するのが「原型」である。

 第二次世界大戦後、日本の国と地方の財政・租税制度について勧告したカール・シャウプは「地方自治はデモクラシーの学校である」と述べた。民主主義を戦前味わったことのない日本国民は、この「デモクラシーの学校」に入ることを財政運営においては拒んだ。憲法によって地方公共団体の長や議会の代表を住民選挙で選ぶことにはなったが、シャウプが提案した住民税率の自由な選択は実現せず、「行政を無責任にする」としてシャウプから廃棄を求められた国からの補助金制度は今も存続している。その結果、シャウプが求めた地方交付税交付金のほかは、全国統一の地方税制と国の補助金を財源として国が定めた各地方団体の「基準財政需要」の実現を中心とした日本の地方財政の姿が続いている。

[宇田川璋仁]

財政収支の勘定組織

政府が財産をもたず公企業も営まなければ、国の収入は租税と公債のみであり、それで公共支出をしなければならない。財政の勘定もこの収入・支出を計上する一つの会計で足りる。この税収と公債を計上し、基本的歳出を示す会計を一般会計という。

 日本の一般会計は、支出について三つの表示方法で公開されている。1番目の方法は、歳出が重要経費別に分類されて表示されており、それぞれの時代の政府活動の状況がわかる。2番目の方法は、所管別(各省別)の歳出が表示されている。3番目の方法は、使途別分類表示である。人件費、物件費、補助金・他会計への繰入れなどに分かれている。3番目の表示方法から、日本の中央政府の仕事がかなりの程度地方団体等への補助金行政であることが推察される。

 日本では明治の初めから国が郵便事業や郵便貯金を取り扱い、国有鉄道を経営し、さらに植民地を保有した。これら特別の事業収入と経費を明確に計理するためには特別会計が必要であった。

 第二次世界大戦後は、長年存続した特別会計のほかに、道路整備・治山・治水等の公共事業を特別会計に移した。これは伝統的に租税を財源として公共投資を行ってきたのが、戦後の特別会計の特例として弾力条項や特例的規定が設置されたことによる。これらの規定は、公共投資を所管する諸省が、予算を確保し継続させるため強く要求するところであった。道路特別会計、治山・治水特別会計などがその代表といえる。近年、特別会計の積立金がいわゆる「埋蔵金」として話題になったのは、特別会計の弾力条項や特例規定による資金積み立てに由来する。第二次世界大戦後創設された特別会計のなかでは、地方交付税特別会計がユニークである。これはシャウプ勧告によって創設されたものであり、2009年(平成21)現在は国税5税(所得税、法人税、酒税、消費税、たばこ税)の30%ほどがこの会計に繰り入れられ、総務省が規定する基準財政需要額と基準財政収入額の差額を埋めるように道府県や市町村に配付される。交付税は国からの補助金と異なり、地方税と同様に一般財源として使用できるので、地方団体の関心が高い。

 第二次世界大戦後、日本では、経済復興、国民生活の安定を目ざして政府が出資した特殊法人が多数創設された。特殊法人には、大別して金融公庫とよばれた政府銀行(日本住宅金融公庫、日本開発銀行等)と公社・公団とよばれた政府事業体(日本電信電話公社、日本住宅公団、日本道路公団、日本国有鉄道・日本鉄道建設公団等)がある。政府は、これらの銀行や事業体へ融資する資金をどこから調達したのか。それは、郵便貯金・年金積立金などの大蔵省(資金運用部)への預託が義務づけられた資金であった。このように、政府金融機関、公社・公団への政府出資、これらの特殊法人への政府融資、特殊法人の債券発行、特殊法人の直接事業活動、特殊法人からの民間への融資のすべての資金活動を「財政投融資」という。財政投融資を含めると政府の財政活動はきわめて広範囲であり、そのすべての会計をみなければ本当の財政資金の動きは明らかにされない。

 しかし、昭和の終わりころ、中曽根康弘内閣のときに国鉄・電電公社等が民営化され、平成に入ってから小泉純一郎内閣の郵政民営化によって財政投融資は大きく変わった。まず、郵便貯金・年金積立金の資金運用部への預託義務が廃止された。この二つの資金は民営化された会社が全額自主運用(市場運用)できることになった。その後、特殊法人も整理され、統合、廃止などにより数が減った。したがって、この後の財政投融資は、残った特殊法人自らが金融市場において政府保証のない公募債券を発行するか、国が国債(財投債)を発行して市場で資金を調達し、それらを貸し付けるだけになった。その結果、2008年度の財政投融資計画の年額は、ピーク時の1996年度に比べて3分の1に当たる13兆円に減少した。

 地方公共団体は、都道府県と市町村をあわせると約1800団体ある。地方団体の会計制度は「地方自治法」で統一的に定められており、会計区分は一般会計と特別会計である。特別会計には、国の法令により義務づけられているものと任意に設置するものとがある。地方財政を統一的に把握するため、統計区分として地方公共団体のすべての会計を普通会計と公営事業会計に分類する統一基準が設けられている。

 普通会計とは、一般会計と公営事業会計を除く特別会計を合算したものである。通常、単に地方財政という場合にはこの普通会計をさすことが多く、国の一般会計と対応するものである。

 公営事業会計は、公営企業会計(上下水道、交通、電気、ガス、病院、駐車場整備等)、収益事業会計(競馬、競輪、宝くじ等)、国民健康保険事業会計、老人保健医療事業会計、介護保険事業会計などに分かれる。

 約1800の地方団体を一つの財政主体とみなす最近の「地方財政計画」で、地方財政における普通会計の歳入・歳出をみると次のようになる。ここで「地方財政計画」とは、例年12月ころに行われる地方財政収支見通しや地方財政政策、国の一般会計を踏まえ、例年2月に内閣が国会に提出するものである。2008年度の地方財政計画によれば、「歳出」項目には、給与関係経費、投資的経費(直轄・補助と単独に分かれる)、一般行政経費(補助と単独に分かれる)、公債費、公営企業繰出金、その他、がある。「歳入」項目には、地方交付税、地方税等、国庫支出金(国からの地方向け補助金)、地方債、その他、がある。

[宇田川璋仁]

第二次世界大戦後の日本財政の歩み

(1)民主化と戦後復興[1945~64年(昭和20~39)]

日本国憲法により、国民各層が投票し戦後政府をつくりあげた。政府の仕事は戦前体制を一掃すること、戦争末期から発生したインフレを根治すること、そして戦後復興に努力することであった。財閥解体、農地解放が実行され、労働組合結成が自由になった。インフレ対策のため、占領軍は、財政は均衡予算のほかは許さず、これによってインフレの根元たる通貨の垂れ流しは止まった。戦後復興のため、為替(かわせ)レートが1ドル=360円に設定され、このハードルを越えて生き残るために企業は懸命に生産費低下を図った。財政の一般会計は、1947年度(昭和22)から1964年度まで18年間という長期間、均衡予算を堅持した。これは明治以後の財政史上空前のことであった。

[宇田川璋仁]

(2)国債の発行再開と消費税の導入[1965~89年(昭和40~平成1)]

1964年度補正予算から国債が発行され今日に至っている。理由は金融引締めによる不況の発生と政府の税収予想が甘かったことである。その後、各期の政府は均衡予算を回復しようとしたが、円の切上げが世界から要求されたり、石油危機が生じたりして、赤字財政が続いた。この時期の田中角栄内閣は立場を逆転して、財政赤字を増大させても、日本列島の公共事業を拡大させようとした。大蔵省(当時)は、その後の財政赤字を減らすための財源として大型消費税を導入しようとしたが国民の反対で、与党は総選挙で敗北した。国民の消費税への反対は根強く、次の中曽根康弘内閣も導入に失敗し、さらに次の竹下登内閣が、国会で多数決を強行して1989年(平成1)4月に導入した。

[宇田川璋仁]

(3)日本のストック経済化とバブル崩壊[1989~2001年(平成1~13)]

昭和60年代から、財政赤字を抱えて財政の制約を受けた日本では、国内需要の拡大策は低金利、高いマネーサプライという金融政策一辺倒であった。「カネ余り」のなかで土地の投機が始まった。それ以前に実施されていたマル優廃止という所得税制改革は、預金よりも土地・株への投機をあおり、いわゆるバブルが発生した。

 しかし1990年から地価高騰を抑えようとして金融引締めが始まった。金利上昇は、借入金を増やしていた不動産業の収益に大きな影響を与えた。それは不動産貸出しに走った金融業にも損失を与えた。地価も急速に低下し、不良債権処理がこの時代の金融業の大問題となった。政府は主要銀行に公的資金を投入して救助した。

[宇田川璋仁]

(4)財政構造改革の時期[2001年(平成13)以降]

経済の低迷期のなかで小泉純一郎内閣が成立した。小泉内閣のモットーは「官より民へ、地方ができることは地方へ」であった。同内閣が行った事業の一つは、郵政事業の民営化「郵政民営化」であった。それまでの日本郵政公社は郵便事業と郵便貯金の2事業を中心にしていたが、分割民営化により、この2事業をそれぞれ別の株式会社に移管した。郵政民営化は国の資金が削減されることになるから長年にわたった「財政投融資」の制度を縮小した。

 小泉内閣は「三位一体改革」の名の下に、所得税から地方の住民税への税源移譲、地方交付税の縮小、地方団体への補助金行政の縮減を実行した。しかし、財政の中央集権は明治時代から保持されてきたものであり、中央官僚や政治家の一部は依然従来の制度に固執している。また地方は、単純公共サービスの中央集権より、多様性のため行政コストがかかり、経済成長を遅らせるという意見もあり、地方分権化が実現されるまでの道はまだまだ長いといわなければならない状況である。

[宇田川璋仁]

『自治省財政局編『地方財政のしくみとその運営の実態』(1978・地方財務協会)』『井堀利宏著『財政赤字の正しい考え方――政府の借金はなぜ問題なのか』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『伊藤光利・田中愛治・真渕勝著『政治過程論』(2000・有斐閣)』『小西砂千夫著『地方財政改革の政治経済学――相互扶助の精神を生かした制度設計』(2007・有斐閣)』『貝塚啓明、アン・O・クルーガー編『日本財政破綻回避への戦略』(2007・日本経済新聞出版社)』『石弘光著『現代税制改革史――終戦からバブル崩壊まで』(2008・東洋経済新報社)』『『図説 日本の財政』各年度版(東洋経済新報社)』『『図説 日本の税制』各年度版(財経詳報社)』『中里透、参議院予算委員会調査室編『図説経済財政データブック』各年度版(学陽書房)』

[参照項目] | 公債 | 財政政策 | 財政投融資 | 市場 | シャウプ勧告 | 消費税 | 地方公共団体 | 地方財政 | 民主主義

出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例

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