Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms

Japanese: 五胡十六国 - ごこじゅうろっこく

The group of nations that rose and fell in northern China from the 4th century to the beginning of the 5th century, as well as the name of the era. The Five Hus were the Xiongnu, the Jie (another species of the Xiongnu), the Di (Tibetan species), the Qiang (Tibetan species), and the Xianbei (there is a strong theory that they were of Turkish origin), but the Sixteen Kingdoms also included a Han nation.

[Keifumi Kubozoe]

Trends in the Five Barbarians Era

Liu Yuan of the Xiongnu proclaimed himself King of Han, and Li Xiong of the Baban (a type of Di) proclaimed himself King of Chengdu, beginning the period of the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms in 304. The Han dynasty captured Luoyang and Emperor Huai in 311 (Yongjia Rebellion), and in 316 captured Chang'an and Emperor Min, destroying the Western Jin dynasty. After that, the Eastern Jin dynasty was established in the south, and the Five Barbarians countries continued to compete for supremacy in northern China, but in the process of the struggle for supremacy among the Five Barbarians, there was a tendency for the two major powers of the east and west to come into conflict with each other. In other words, Former Zhao (a new name for the Han Dynasty) was opposed by Later Zhao, founded by Shi Le, a former military commander under Liu Yuan, and with its capital in Xiangguo. After the victorious Later Zhao collapsed internally, rivalry arose between Former Yan of the Murong clan based in Ye and Former Qin based in Chang'an. Under the rule of Fu Jian, known as the most worthy ruler of the Five Barbarians, Former Qin defeated Former Yan and then destroyed the two states of Dai and Former Liang, successfully unifying northern China in 376 and expanding its influence into the Western Regions. However, after being defeated at the Fei River in 383 during an expedition to the Eastern Jin Dynasty in an attempt to unify China, the various tribes under the control of the Former Qin all began to move towards independence, resulting in an extremely divided state with nine separate states by 400. The central figures among these were Later Yan, which descended from Former Yan, and Later Qin, which was based in Chang'an, but the Northern Wei, the successor to the former Dai state, drove the former from the Central Plains and grew powerful, eventually succeeding in unifying northern China in 439, bringing the period of the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms to a close. This was followed by the Northern and Southern Dynasties, in which the Northern Wei faced off against the Song Dynasty, which had been established in Jiangnan in 420 to replace the Eastern Jin Dynasty.

[Keifumi Kubozoe]

Background of the Five Hus Dynasty

In addition to the Sixteen Kingdoms, there were the short-lived Western Yan, the Dai states that were the precursors of the Wei and Northern Wei dynasties, and small regimes such as the Zhai clan of Dingling. The primary characteristic of this period was political division. However, it was not caused solely by the activities of the Five Barbarians. From the Yellow Turban Rebellion to the division into three kingdoms, the country was already deeply divided by the end of the 2nd century, and this was closely related to the changes within Chinese society, such as the expansion of the power of the noble families. In the background, the direct trigger for the uprising of the Five Barbarians was the weakening of the central government of Jin due to the Rebellion of the Eight Kings, and the Eight Kings also introduced the military forces of other ethnic groups to fight each other.

Furthermore, many of the Five Barbarians were brought under Chinese rule as a result of China's international development after the Han dynasty. The Southern Xiongnu, who surrendered to the Later Han in the 1st century and were placed on the southern edge of the Great Wall, spread throughout Shanxi Province by the 3rd century, while the Di and Qiang peoples in the west were also conquered by the Later Han and relocated to Gansu and Shaanxi. Moreover, as can be seen from the Southern Xiongnu, they were oppressed by the Han people and reduced to a subordinate position. The uprising was an attempt to regain independence in such a situation.

It can be said that the contradictions resulting from the internal and external development of Chinese society gave rise to the Five Barbarians period.

[Keifumi Kubozoe]

Ruled by the Hu people

The second characteristic of this period is the establishment of the rule of the Han people by the Hu people. Non-Han people (Hu people), centered around the ruling tribes, were organized while maintaining the tribal system of the nomadic era, and formed the core of the Hu people's rule as the main members of the national army. The national army was mostly divided by kings who were members of the imperial family. On the other hand, the prefecture and county system that had existed since the Qin and Han dynasties was often applied to the Han people, and they were governed through bureaucrats. A dual system of rule, with different forms for the Han people and the Hu people, was implemented, and the emperor or heavenly king ruled over them all (in some countries, the title was only king or duke). In addition, the title of Da Chanyu (Great Chanyu) was used to govern the Hu people in Former and Later Zhao, but in Former Yan, it was abolished when the title of emperor was adopted, and its existence was uncertain, and it was subordinate to the title of emperor, as can be seen from the fact that the person who assumed this title was a candidate for the next emperor, such as the crown prince. However, this system was easily destabilized by internal conflicts among the kings who controlled the national army, and the Five Barbarians were generally short-lived. The temporary solution to this weakness was not until the Northern Wei dynasty, which carried out the dissolution of the tribes.

In order to govern the Han people, the Five Barbarians appointed Han nobles as local officials and generals, making use of their ability to maintain order, while also actively promoting intellectuals. The Prince's Camp established by Shi Le of the Later Zhao Dynasty was famous and produced the famous minister Zhang Bin, and the famous Han prime minister Wang Meng made a major contribution to the conquest of Former Qin. It should also be noted that the Five Barbarians often adopted a policy of moving the people and soldiers of conquered areas to the area around the national capital to solidify their own rule.

The rulers of the Five Barbarians generally showed a deep interest in Buddhism. They sought to utilize the supernatural powers of high priests, such as those of Later Zhao's Fo Tucheng, or to win the hearts of the people, which resulted in the flourishing of Buddhism. The caves of Dunhuang were discovered during the rule of Former Qin. Other famous monks who were revered by the rulers were Dao'an of Former Qin and Kumarajiva of Later Qin, and the latter's work of translating Buddhist scriptures is particularly valuable.

The Five Barbarians period was characterized by political division, but it also included a new element, the Hu people, and should be evaluated as an era that marked the first steps leading to the Sui and Tang dynasties.

[Keifumi Kubozoe]

[Reference item] | Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties

North China during the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms Period
©Shogakukan ">

North China during the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms Period

Gohu 16 dynasty rotation table
©Shogakukan ">

Gohu 16 dynasty rotation table

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

4世紀から5世紀初めの中国北部に興亡した国家群、ならびにその時代名。五胡とは匈奴(きょうど)、羯(けつ)（匈奴の別種）、氐(てい)（チベット種）、羌(きょう)（チベット種）、鮮卑(せんぴ)（トルコ種説が強い）をさすが、十六国中には漢人の国も含まれる。

［窪添慶文］

五胡時代の大勢

匈奴の劉淵(りゅうえん)が漢王を称し、巴蛮(はばん)（氐の一種）の李雄(りゆう)が成都王を称し、304年、五胡十六国時代が始まる。漢は311年に洛陽(らくよう)を陥落させて懐帝を捕らえ（永嘉(えいか)の乱）、316年には長安を落として愍帝(びんてい)を捕らえ、西晋(せいしん)を滅ぼした。その後は、南方に東晋があり、華北には五胡諸国の争覇という状況が続くが、五胡の争覇の過程では東西に二大勢力が対立する傾向がみられる。すなわち、前趙(ぜんちょう)（漢の改称）に対しては、もと劉淵の武将であった石勒(せきろく)の建てた後趙が襄国(じょうこく)に都を置いて対抗し、勝ち残った後趙が内部崩壊したあとは、鄴(ぎょう)に拠(よ)る慕容(ぼよう)氏の前燕(ぜんえん)と、長安に拠る前秦(ぜんしん)が対峙(たいじ)し、五胡第一の名君と評される苻堅(ふけん)統治下で前秦が前燕を倒し、ついで代、前涼(ぜんりょう)2国をも滅ぼして376年に華北統一に成功、西域(せいいき)にも勢力を広げる。しかし中国統一を賭(か)けた東晋遠征に383年淝水(ひすい)で敗れると、前秦支配下の各種族は一斉に独立に向かい、400年の時点で9国が分立するという極度の分裂状態を現出した。そのうち中心となったのは前燕の系譜を引く後燕と長安に拠る後秦であったが、旧代国の後身である北魏(ほくぎ)が前者を中原(ちゅうげん)から駆逐して強大化し、439年には華北統一に成功、五胡十六国時代に幕を下ろす。以後は、東晋にかわって420年江南に成立していた宋(そう)と北魏が対峙する南北朝時代に入る。

［窪添慶文］

五胡時代の背景

十六国以外にも、短命の西燕、魏や北魏の前身である代の諸国があり、さらには丁零(ていれい)の翟(てき)氏などの小政権がみられ、この時代は政治的分裂を第一の特色とする。しかし五胡の活動のみがそれを引き起こしたのではない。黄巾(こうきん)の乱から三国分立と、2世紀末よりすでに分裂の様相は深く、それは豪族勢力の伸張という中国社会内部の変化と深い関係をもっていた。その背景のなかで直接に五胡の蜂起(ほうき)を触発したのが八王の乱による晋の中央政府の弱体化であり、しかも八王らは異民族の武力を導入して互いに争ったのである。

　また五胡諸族は、多く漢以降の中国の対外発展の結果として中国の支配下に取り込まれた存在である。1世紀に後漢(ごかん)に下って長城南辺に置かれた南匈奴は、3世紀には山西省全域に分布し、西方の氐や羌も後漢の討伐を受け甘粛(かんしゅく)や陝西(せんせい)に移されていた。しかも南匈奴にみられるように漢人に圧迫され隷属的地位に落とされていた。蜂起はそのような状況における自立性回復の試みであった。

　このように中国社会の内部的、対外的発展の招いた矛盾が五胡時代を生んだといえよう。

［窪添慶文］

胡族による支配

この時代における特色の第二は、胡族による漢族支配の成立にある。支配種族を中心とする非漢族（胡族）が、遊牧時代の部族制を維持しつつ組織され、国軍の主要構成員として胡族による支配の中核を形成する。国軍を分掌するのは多く宗室の一員である諸王である。一方、漢族に対しては多くの場合、秦・漢以来の郡県制を適用し、官僚を媒介とする統治を行った。漢族と胡族と形態を異にする二重支配体制が実施されたわけであり、その全体を統治したのが皇帝もしくは天王であった（王や公の称号にとどまった国もある）。なお胡族を統治する称号として前・後趙などでは大単于(ぜんう)があったが、前燕では帝号をとるとともに廃されるなどその存否は一定せず、かつそれへの就任者が皇太子など次期皇帝候補者であることにみられるように、皇帝号の下位に置かれていた。ところで、以上の体制は、国軍を分掌する諸王の内部抗争によって動揺しやすく、五胡の諸国はおおむね短命に終わらざるをえなかった。その弱点のいちおうの解決は、部族解散を断行した北魏をまたねばならなかった。

　五胡の諸国は漢人統治の必要上、漢人豪族を地方官や将軍に任じてその秩序維持能力を利用する一方、積極的に知識人を登用した。後趙の石勒(せきろく)の設けた君子営は著名であって名臣張賓(ちょうひん)を出し、前秦の制覇には漢人名宰相王猛の寄与が大きい。なお、五胡諸国においては、征服地域の人民や兵士を国都の周辺に移（徙(うつ)）して自らの支配を固める徙民(しみん)政策が多くとられていることにも留意する必要がある。

　五胡の諸君主は一般に仏教に深い関心を示した。後趙が仏図澄(ぶっとちょう)に対したような高僧のもつ神異的能力の利用、あるいは人心の収攬(しゅうらん)を図ったのであるが、その結果仏教の盛行を招いた。敦煌(とんこう)の石窟(せっくつ)の開かれたのは前秦統治時期においてであった。君主の尊崇を受けた僧としては、ほかに前秦の道安、後秦の鳩摩羅什(くまらじゅう)が名高く、とくに後者の訳経事業は貴重である。

　五胡時代は政治的分裂を特色とするが、胡族という新要素を含み、隋(ずい)・唐へつながる第一歩を記した時代として評価すべきであろう。

［窪添慶文］

[参照項目] | 魏晋南北朝

五胡十六国時代の華北

五胡十六国王朝交替表

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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