Oral literature

Japanese: 口承文芸 - こうしょうぶんげい（英語表記）oral literature

In contrast to literature recorded in writing, it refers to literature that has been passed down by mouth, including myths, history, legends, proverbs, chants, children's songs, and old tales. The term oral literature is a translation of the term littérature orale, used by the French Paul Sébillot (1846-1918) in the early 20th century, and has become popular in Japan since the publication of Kunio Yanagita's "Considerations on the History of Oral Literature" (1947). It is not very different from what was once called folk literature or traditional literature.

In the age when people did not know how to write, all of their myths, legends, history, laws, scientific knowledge, etc. could only be transmitted through words, and so a profession such as "storyteller" was naturally born. In the case of the Celts, known for their eloquence and richness in traditional literature, it seems that they made great efforts to cultivate their poets, and it is said that they were only allowed to become "poets" (filids) after attending academies run by so-called Druid priests and being able to recite dozens of traditional literary works, sometimes for as long as 20 years. Naturally, the terms had a meter for the convenience of reciting them, and gradually they differentiated into prose and poetry according to their uses. Moreover, since these recitations were mainly made on occasions such as festivals and occasions to praise the achievements of patron chiefs or mourn their deaths, they inevitably tended to be full of exaggerated expressions, leading to a differentiation between the style of folk tales using everyday words and those that used them, and aristocratic literature that was primarily intended to serve the court or nobility. In any case, the literature of the olden times was epic, so to speak, without individuality, following a previously established form as it was, since the individual consciousness was still weak. However, in Scandinavia, from the latter half of the 8th century, poets who used new techniques to express personal feelings appeared, and the period moved from the epic style represented by the Psalms of the Edda to the so-called skaldic poetry. They freely frequented the courts of various regions, and became the forerunners of modern poets, leading to the French and German minstrels.

With the spread of writing, almost all old oral literature was transferred to writing (the Finnish "Kalevala" being the most famous example), and oral literature has greatly declined in power. However, there are regions where oral traditions are still strong alongside written literature, such as some tribes in Ireland and Africa, and there are many ethnic groups that are not yet known to the world and their oral literature has not been recorded. For example, a considerable number of folk tales have been discovered among the Tindika people, a minority group that only became known to the world in the 20th century, and the legends of the Ossetians of the Caucasus convey ancient forms of Indo-Germanic mythology. Also, the famous folklorist Malinowski, while interacting closely with the indigenous people of the Trobriand Islands in the southwest Pacific, discovered three types of oral literature among them that are roughly equivalent to our myths, legends, and folk tales, and recently the myths of the indigenous people of the Amazon region of South America have been attracting attention, raising many interesting questions. However, the difficulty in studying oral literature in general is that it is difficult to ascertain questions such as when those traditions originated, whether they were transmitted from elsewhere, what their exact type and quality are, how much a story once established changes with the times and the preferences of the transmitter, or whether it is transmitted almost exactly without change, and other issues, and standard rules have not yet been established except in the field of folktales. Although considerable progress has been made in collecting such stories, mainly folktales, it would be fair to say that academic research into them has not yet even taken a firm footing.

[Yamamuro Shizuka]

Japan

Oral literature is an important research subject in folklore studies, and its scope includes the fields of Japanese folklore studies, namely, naming, new words and phrases, proverbs, riddles, chants, folk songs, children's songs, tales, old tales, and legends, which belong to the three categories of language arts: tangible culture, language arts, and mental phenomena. It was proposed and researched by Kunio Yanagita, who wrote "The Essence of Oral Literature" (Japanese Literature, 1932, later included in "Considerations on the History of Oral Literature"). Oral literature is literature that is repeatedly transmitted from mouth to ear and from ear to mouth through the expression of words, and it can be seen from epic poems such as the Ainu yukar and the Finnish kalevala that literature existed in times and peoples that were not connected with letters and books. Before writing was used to record things, and even after writing began to be used and books began to circulate, ordinary people continued to live a life unrelated to writing for a long time. Furthermore, the fact that oral literature maintained close ties with recorded literature and nurtured various forms of literature is easily seen in the circumstances surrounding the compilation of the Kojiki and the existence of the Tale of the Heike, which has the functions of both music and literature. Oral literature was managed and passed down by the general public, or ordinary people, rather than by a small intellectual class, and its contents are full of vitality, and although farmers were at the center of its transmission, the role of travelling people, who played a role in spreading it, cannot be ignored.

A major feature of oral literature that differs from documentary literature is the relationship between the author and the listener. In oral literature, the author is like a representative of the audience, and cannot go beyond the bounds of the listener's sensibilities. The listener also has the power to be involved in the literary work to a certain extent, and it can be said that both parties have changed the literary work under a certain agreement. It was thought that changes at the discretion of an individual were not easy to make, and the solemn function of ancient storytellers, who were involved in the sacred traditions of Katar, Yom, and Utau as something to be trusted, has been maintained to later generations.

Oral literature has changed flexibly and spread to various places depending on the time and region, and the ability of the storyteller and listener, but Japan is a country blessed with oral literature, and research on old tales, legends, folk songs, and stories in particular is being promoted. Research on oral literature should begin with faithfully collecting and comparatively studying the stories currently being passed down in various parts of Japan in the form they are handed down, and then we should turn our attention to the literary abilities and unique beliefs of the ethnic group, as well as its social foundations.

[Tokue Motomasa]

China

What is called oral literature in China is very broad in scope and has many varieties, but it can be roughly divided into three categories: (1) storytelling, (2) singing, and (3) both storytelling and singing.

(1) includes myths, legends, storytelling, banzai, riddles, tongue twisters, etc. Storytelling was called "setsusho" and was told in tea houses and other places. Banzai is famous for the "Two Manzai" from the Beijing area, which features a funny man and a straight man, and the themes are diverse, including current events, vocal imitation, and parody.

(2) includes work songs, ritual songs, love songs, heroic epics, and lullabies. Among these, ritual songs have a relatively high degree of tradition. For example, the "Sanchō-uta" (singing song) sung at weddings is still sung in the traditional form and content in rural areas today. Love songs are called "tai-uta" (tai-uta), and in the old days each village would send out a representative to compete. In what is known as Utagaki (singing contests), people would sing to each other and choose their spouse.

(3) includes regional dramas (Peking Opera, Huangmei Opera, Yue Opera, etc.), Pingdan, etc. Regional dramas are sung and spoken in the local dialect, and depending on the region, they can be bold or elegant, and the material chosen is one that matches the content and atmosphere of the play. For example, in Peking Opera, it is "Journey to the West," and in Yue Opera, it is "Dream of the Red Chamber." Pingdan is a type of storytelling performed in the Jiangnan region, and is accompanied by the lute and shamisen. The opening part, which corresponds to the pillow part, called the "kaihen," is sung, and then the main story begins.

[Yoshio Imanishi]

"Considerations on the History of Oral Literature" by Kunio Yanagita (1947, Chuokoron-Shinsha) " "Myth and Society" by Malinowski, translated by Keiji Kokubun (1941, Sogensha) " "Cinderella Stories of the World" by Shizuka Yamamuro (1979, Shinchosha)

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

文字をもって記録された文芸に対して、口から耳へと伝えられてきた文芸をいい、神話、歴史、伝説、諺(ことわざ)、唱え言、童唄(わらべうた)、昔話の類を含む。口承文芸の語は、20世紀初頭にフランスのセビヨPaul Sébillot（1846―1918）が用いたlittérature oraleの訳語とされ、日本では柳田国男(やなぎたくにお)の『口承文芸史考』（1947）の刊行以来普及した用語であるが、古く民間文芸とか伝承文芸とかよばれたものと大差はないだろう。

　まだ文字を知らなかった時代には、その民族の神話、伝説はもとより、歴史、法律、科学的知識等のすべてがことばを通して伝えられるよりほかなかったわけで、そこにおのずと「語部(かたりべ)」のような専門職を生じた。雄弁と伝承文学の豊かさで知られるケルト人の場合でみると、その育成には非常な努力が払われたらしく、いわゆるドルイド僧の経営する学塾に通って、ときには20年もかかって何十種もの伝承文芸を暗誦(あんしょう)できるようになって初めて「詩人」filidたることを許されたという。用語は記誦の便宜のために当然韻律をもったものであり、それがしだいに用途に従って散文と詩に分化した。また、それらの記誦は祭りの際や、パトロンである首長の功業をたたえたり死を悼んだりする機会が主であったから、どうしても誇張された表現が多くなったはずで、そこに日常の用語とそれを用いた民話などの様式と、宮廷ないし貴族に奉仕することを主とした貴族文学的なものとの分化も生じた。いずれにせよ古い時代の文芸は、まだ個人の自覚が乏しかっただけに、いったん成立した型をそのままに追う、いわば没個性的な叙事詩的なものであった。しかし北欧でみると、8世紀後半のころから、新しい技巧を用いて個人的な心情をほとばしらせた詩人が輩出して、それまでの『エッダ詩編』に代表される叙事詩型から、いわゆるスカルド詩の時代に移る。彼らは各地の宮廷などに自由に出入りし、これが近代詩人の先駆をなし、フランスやドイツの吟遊詩人につながる。

　文字の普及につれて、古い口承文学はほとんどすべて文字に移され（フィン人の「カレバラ」はそのもっとも有名な例である）、口承文学はすこぶる勢力を減じた。しかし、アイルランドやアフリカなどの若干の部族でのように、文字による文芸と並んで、まだ口承の伝統が強く生きている地域があり、また世界にはまだ知られない民族とその口承文芸の記録されずにいるものが少なからずある。たとえば、20世紀になって初めて世界に知られた少数民族ティンディカ人の間にもかなりの民話が発見され、コーカサス（カフカス）のオセット人の伝説は、インド・ゲルマン語族の神話の古型を伝えていた。また、有名な民俗学者マリノフスキーが南西太平洋のトロブリアンド諸島で先住民と親しくつきあううち、彼らの間にわれわれの神話、伝説、昔話にほぼ見合う三つの口承文芸のタイプを発見したとか、最近では南米アマゾン地域の土着民の神話が注目されるとか、いろいろ興味ある問題を提出している。しかし、総じて口承文芸の研究で困難なのは、それらの伝承がいつ生じたか、他から伝えられたか、その正確な種類と質はどうであるか、いったん成立した物語が時代の変化と伝承者の好みによってどれだけ変化するか、それとも変化しないでほぼ正確に伝承されるのか、などの問題が見定めにくく、基準となるような法則が民話の領域を除いてはまだ確立していないことである。その収集は民話を中心にしてかなり進んでいるが、その学問的研究はまだ筋道さえもよくついてはいない、というべきであろう。

［山室　静］

日本

口承文芸は民俗学の重要な研究対象であり、およその範囲は、日本民俗学の領域、すなわち有形文化・言語芸術・心意現象の3部門のなかの言語芸術に属する命名・新語と新文句・諺(ことわざ)・謎(なぞ)・唱え言・民謡・童唄(わらべうた)・語り物・昔話・伝説の諸項を含み、「口承文芸大意」（『日本文学』1932。のち『口承文芸史考』に収録）を著した柳田国男により提唱され、研究が推進されてきた。口承文芸は、ことばの表現を通して、口から耳へ、耳から口へと繰り返し伝達されてゆく文芸であり、文字・書物とかかわりのない時代・民族にも文芸が存在したことは、アイヌのユーカラやフィンランドのカレバラなどの叙事詩をみてもわかる。文字により記録化される以前はもちろんのこと、文字の使用が始まり、書物が流布するようになってからでも、文字とかかわりのない常民の生活は久しく続いていた。また、口承文芸が記録された文芸と密接な交渉を保ちながら各種の文芸を育てあげてきたことは、『古事記』撰進(せんしん)の事情、音楽・文学双方の機能をもつ『平家物語』の存在などからも、十分考えられる。口承文芸は、一部の有識階級よりも一般庶民＝常民によって管理・伝承されてきたもので、その内容は生命力あふれるものであり、伝承の中心は農民であったが、伝播(でんぱ)の役割を担った遊行民(ゆぎょうみん)の働きも無視できない。

　口承文芸が記録文学と異なる大きな特色として、作者と聴き手との関係をあげうる。作者とは口承文芸にあっては聴衆の代表格のごときもので、聴き手の感覚の枠外に出ることはできず、また聴き手も文芸に少なからず関与する力をもち、双方がある一定の約束の下に文芸を変化させてきたといえる。一個人の恣意(しい)による変更は容易になしえぬものとされ、古代の語部(かたりべ)が、信ずべきものとして、カタル・ヨム・ウタウなどの神聖な伝承に携わっていた厳粛な機能を、後代にまで保ち続けてきた。

　時代や地域の差や、語り手・聴き手の能力により、口承文芸は伸縮自在に変化し、各地に広められてきたが、日本は口承文芸に恵まれている国柄で、とくに、昔話・伝説・民謡・語り物の研究は推進されている。口承文芸の研究は、まず、現在日本各地に伝承されているものを、その伝承の姿のままに忠実に採集し比較研究することから始め、そこから、民族が有する文芸能力や固有の信仰、また社会的基盤などに目を向けるべきである。

［徳江元正］

中国

中国で口承文芸とよばれているものは、非常に範囲が広く、また種類も多い。大まかに分けて、(1)語り物、(2)唄い、(3)語りと唄い、の三つに分類できよう。

(1)としては、神話・伝説・講談・万歳・謎・早口ことばなどがあげられる。講談は「説書」とよばれ、茶館などで語られた。万歳は北京(ペキン)地方の二人万歳が有名で、ボケと突っ込みがあり、題材も時事関係・声帯模写・パロディーなど多岐にわたる。

(2)としては、労働歌・儀式歌・恋愛歌・英雄叙事詩・子守歌などがある。このなかで、儀式歌の伝承性が比較的高い。たとえば結婚式のときに歌う「撒帳(さんちょう)歌」は、現在でも農村では昔ながらの形式、内容で歌われている。恋愛歌は「対歌」といい、古くは村ごとに代表者を出して勝敗を競った。いわゆる歌垣(うたがき)で、互いに歌いあって配偶者を選んだ。

(3)に属するのは、地方劇（京劇・黄梅戯(こうばいぎ)・越劇(えつげき)など）、評弾などである。地方劇は方言で唄いかつ語るもので、土地により、豪快なもの文雅なものと個性が分かれ、素材としてその内容と劇のもつ雰囲気のあうものが選ばれる。たとえば京劇では『西遊記』が、越劇では『紅楼夢』がといったぐあいである。評弾は江南地方で行われる講談の一種で、琵琶(びわ)・三絃(さんげん)の伴奏をつける。「開篇(かいへん)」とよばれる枕(まくら)に相当する部分で唄い、その後、本題の語りに移行する。

［今西凱夫］

『柳田国男著『口承文芸史考』（1947・中央公論社）』▽『マリノフスキー著、国分敬治訳『神話と社会』（1941・創元社）』▽『山室静著『世界のシンデレラ物語』（1979・新潮社）』

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