Industry

Japanese: 工業 - こうぎょう

In contrast to industries that extract or cultivate naturally occurring resources, such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, aquaculture, livestock farming, and mining, industries that continuously produce a wide variety of products in fixed quantities at a fixed location (such as a factory) by processing these products in some way using tools or machines are called industry or manufacturing industries.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Industrial Classification

The range of manufacturing is wide, ranging from various types of food processing to processed textile and wood products, processed products made from various mineral resources, machinery, and weapons, and the Japan Standard Industrial Classification divides this manufacturing industry into 21 medium categories, 151 minor categories, and 568 detailed categories based on the type of goods produced.

In Clark's classification of primary, secondary, and tertiary industries based on the stage of industrialization, industry is included in the secondary industry along with mining and construction, but mining is an industry that supplies raw materials to industry, and construction, which builds houses, buildings, bridges, etc., is distinguished from industry (manufacturing) in that it does not involve factory production. The commerce, finance, insurance, transportation, and service sectors included in the tertiary industry are distinguished from the first two in that they do not produce "things," but they are essential industrial sectors for providing funds and security to the primary and secondary industries and for "realizing" the value added there. Electricity, gas, water, and other services that are inherently industrial in nature are classified as public utilities in statistics and are not usually included in manufacturing because they have a strong public utility character.

Industry is generally considered to be divided into consumer goods (non-durable consumer goods such as food and clothing, and durable consumer goods such as home appliances and automobiles) and producer goods (raw materials, parts, machinery, etc.), with the aim of clarifying the following: (1) When goods produced in industry are consumed, they can be either directly consumed for human life or used to produce other goods (called productive consumption); (2) In order to mass-produce consumer goods with excellent quality and function, a large number of producer goods are required, and industries that produce various raw materials, parts (intermediate products), and machinery are differentiated, and the social division of labor expands and deepens accordingly; (3) Therefore, the more technology advances, the more diversified and specialized products become, the more diverse the types of industries become, and the higher the degree of processing of the same goods becomes (the development of roundabout production); and (4) as industry becomes highly developed, the proportion of the sector that produces producer goods tends to increase. In this case, the sector that produces means of production such as machinery is sometimes called investment goods industry.

In addition, industries are classified into materials industries, which produce supplies and ingredients for production, processing industries, which process materials to produce individual items and parts, and assembly industries, which use parts and materials to produce finished goods.

Furthermore, focusing on differences in production technology, the industry is sometimes divided into machinery industries, where the production process proceeds by machines physically processing materials, and process industries (petrochemicals, oil refining, steel, non-ferrous metals, etc.), which employ large production facilities and where the production process proceeds mainly through chemical reactions inside containers. This division is related to the development of capitalism and changes in the energy sector (hydropower - coal - electricity - oil), and in the second half of the 20th century, prompted by technological innovation, the process industries and machinery industries have been rapidly combined into industrial complexes.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

The development of industrial production

[1] Cottage industry This is the most primitive form of industrial production, in which family members cooperated to collect and process raw materials for "self-consumption" or as tribute, and was widespread throughout primitive, ancient, and medieval societies. The barter of processed goods occurred based on the availability of raw materials, but it was never separated from hunting, fishing, or agriculture as a livelihood.

[2] Handicrafts The first form of industry to separate from agriculture as an independent occupation was handicrafts. This was the production of products ordered by consumers (customer production = made-to-order production). At the same time as the emergence of ancient urban civilization, craftsmen of slave status directly under the king engaged in production using materials provided by the royal family, who were the consumers, but as urban civilization developed, they gradually became independent. In classical ancient society, slave workshops using slaves were also developed, but the typical development of independent self-employment was the guild-based handicrafts of medieval Europe. This handicraft business, consisting of a master, craftsmen, and apprentices, met the demand of neighboring lords and farmers, and the luxury goods they produced were transported to distant places by merchants. The craftsmen organized guilds of the same trade to strengthen mutual aid, but free production activities were restricted. Apprentices received technical training from their masters, honed their skills as craftsmen, and the path to becoming a master was opened. The relationship between master and apprentice was more of a master-disciple status relationship than an employment relationship. Handicrafts were widely distributed not only in cities but also in rural areas as side jobs for farmers, and mainly focused on everyday woolen products, knitted socks, knitted hats, felt hats, gloves, iron pots, frying pans, knives, needles, pins, copperware, etc., along with new agricultural products such as taisei (dye), came to play a role in complementing the rural economy. This was the development of small-scale businesses = small-item production by farmers.

[3] Manufacture Rural industries, which started as side jobs for small farmers, initially became deeply dependent on merchants (wholesalers) who bought small goods from farmers for raw materials, tools, and funds, and only received low processing fees under the wholesaler advance system. Gradually, however, they expanded their resources, specialized in the business, employed more workers, did work for multiple wholesalers, and began to operate with their own resources. This was the beginning of capitalist management. This type of management is called manufacture (factory-based handicrafts). The means of labor are tools, just like in handicrafts, but unlike the integrated production of seasoned craftsmen, a system of division of labor and collaboration was introduced for each process, and productivity improved significantly compared to urban handicrafts. In the case of England, the heyday of manufacture was from the late 16th century to the early 18th century.

[4] Factory Industry With the Industrial Revolution, various machines powered by steam engines dramatically changed the nature of industrial production, and productivity expanded dramatically. Machine-based industries, which began with cotton spinning, spread from light industrial sectors such as weaving and woolen textiles to heavy industrial sectors such as the steel industry. The light industrial sector used machines for almost all processes, and workers were transformed into those who only performed auxiliary work for the machines, so unskilled workers such as women, minors, and children were widely employed. In order to increase the productivity of machines and achieve mass production, workers were forced to accept low wages and extended working hours, and the intensity of work was also increased by increasing the rotation speed of machines. The development of the textile industry led to the development of various machine industries such as textile machines, as well as the machine tool industry, and the steel industry, which is the material industry for that. Many of the machines in the steel and machinery industries were developed from tools and machines, and skilled workers often supervised young unskilled workers in production.

This Industrial Revolution saw the full-scale establishment of capitalism in Britain, an overwhelming increase in the proportion of industry in the national economy, the shift of the main role in production from human labor to machines, and the establishment of capital's control over labor. In the 20th century, "automated" factories and chemical plants with huge equipment were born in factory-based industries. Recently, the introduction of computers and industrial robots has led to remarkable progress in labor-saving.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

World Industry

Britain, which first achieved the Industrial Revolution, accounted for half of the world's industrial production in the late 19th century and reigned as the "world's factory." In the 20th century, the United States rose to prominence, and after World War II, it became the largest and strongest industrial nation in the capitalist world, based on the development of heavy chemical industries centered on steel, automobiles, and chemicals. It led the scientific and technological revolution that characterized the postwar economies of developed countries, and in 1953 accounted for half (55%) of the total industrial production in the capitalist world. In parallel with the assistance for the reconstruction of Western Europe, which had lost its colonies and suffered from the war, America's huge monopoly capital actively advanced overseas, giving birth to many global and multinational companies. During the Cold War, weapons production (nuclear missiles, aviation and space weapons, etc., which incorporate advanced technology) as the material foundation for protecting the capitalist world system was bloated by the huge defense expenditures of the federal government, leading to the militarization of the American economy and the formation of the military-industrial complex, which has led to a decline in the civilian sector (textiles, clothing, food), and recently, the automobile sector has also shown signs of decline.

After World War II, the weight of heavy and chemical industries increased significantly in advanced industrial countries. West Germany achieved the recovery and development of coal and steel in the 1950s, and chemical, electrical, and vehicle industries in the 1960s, which was called an "economic miracle". The same can be said for Italy, which succeeded in modernizing its industries, mainly in machinery, metals, and chemicals. France has promoted its economic modernization plan (increasing the size and streamlining of companies) by financing heavy and chemical industries, such as steel, machinery, electrical, transportation equipment, electronics, aircraft, and weapons, with state funds, and has become the center of economic integration of the EC, expanding exports of semi-finished products to the EC market. The UK is suffering from a "stagnant economy" overall. In particular, coal and iron, which were the pillars of the UK's industrial development, are not doing well due to the shift in energy sources and the aging of domestic resources, and heavy and chemical industrialization, centered on the mechanical industry (aircraft, automobiles, machine tools, etc.) and the chemical industry, has progressed to a certain extent, but the textile industry, which once represented the UK, has significantly declined, and the world reputation of high-quality woolen fabrics is gradually fading. In this situation, Japan's heavy chemical industry has grown the fastest and still maintains a high industrial production index today. In the early 1980s, the size of the manufacturing industry in each of the developed capitalist countries was approximately 53 for Japan, 38 for the former West Germany, 23 for France, and 15 for the UK, with the US being 100 (calculated from the percentage of manufacturing in each country's GNP). The percentage of manufacturing in each country's GNP in 1981 was 22.4% for the US, 26.2% for France, 20.2% for the UK, 36.4% for the former West Germany, 30% for Japan, and 33.4% for Italy, which is the total figure for mining and manufacturing. The economies of Germany and Japan are heavily weighted by manufacturing, and it can be said that the development of the service economy (service industry) is somewhat delayed.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Japanese Industry

In Japan, handicrafts were dominant in the late Edo period, and the formation of manufacturing was finally recognized in the textile industry. In response to the movements of the Western powers in Asia, the Meiji government accelerated the introduction of modern industry (promotion of industry and commerce) in order to enrich the country and strengthen its military, developing the silk-reeling industry, cotton spinning industry, and government-run military factories, and worked to secure military supplies with foreign currency earnings from raw silk exports. With the victories in the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese wars as a backdrop, heavy industries such as the steel industry (government-run Yahata Steel Works) and shipbuilding were developed, and after World War I, the development of heavy chemical industries supported by military demand was made possible by overcoming the 1929 (Showa 4) depression through forced rationalization, including the formation of cartels and mass layoffs. By the year before the Second Sino-Japanese War, production in heavy chemical industries had surpassed light industries, and under the wartime system, even small and medium-sized factories were fully mobilized for military production. Heavy taxes on agriculture and low wages, as exemplified by the "Saddest Tales of Factory Girls," made it possible for industrial development to depend on military demand and the colonial market.

Industry, which was devastated in World War II, fell to one-tenth of its prewar level (average of 1934-1936) by the time of Japan's defeat in 1945 (Showa 20). Despite enduring shortages of capital, machinery, and raw materials, it gradually recovered, reaching half its prewar level by 1947, and then, triggered by the special procurement demand caused by the Korean War, it rapidly expanded, recovering to prewar levels as early as 1951. From 1955 onwards, Japan entered a period of high economic growth (until 1973), centered on the rapid growth of the heavy and chemical industry sector (machinery, metals, chemicals, etc.). In 1957, it was twice as large as prewar levels, in 1963 it was five times larger, and by 1970 it was nearly 14 times larger, making it one of the world's leading industrial nations. The reasons for this high growth include (1) the contribution of postwar democratic reforms to the expansion of the domestic market, (2) the presence of a skilled labor force (engineers and workers) that absorbed and improved upon technology introduced from advanced Western countries, and (3) the expansion of private capital investment in cutting-edge machinery, made possible by relatively light military spending, gave industry a high level of international competitiveness and led to rapid growth in exports.The first oil shock at the end of 1973 caused industrial production to fall into a serious recession, particularly in export industries and small and medium-sized enterprises, due to soaring energy prices and suppressed total demand (sluggish private housing investment, private capital investment, and public investment). With the second oil shock in 1979, material industries (steel, chemicals, cement, paper and pulp, etc.) were unable to absorb the rising energy costs and were forced into a long-term stagnation, but processing and assembly industries (automobiles, home appliances, general machinery, machine tools, etc.) promoted thorough rationalization and energy-saving measures (lightweight and high-performance machines through the application of electronics, etc.), and still maintain high international competitiveness, especially in highly processed industries that generate high added value. Integrated circuits (ICs) have come to be called the "rice of industry," replacing steel in the past. Other recent trends include the advancement of labor-intensive industries such as textiles, shipbuilding, and optical machinery into Korea and Southeast Asia, and the advancement of capital (pulp, metals, automobiles, etc.) into Canada, Australia, South America, the United States, and the United Kingdom to secure resources and resolve economic friction.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Developing country industries

In developing countries, industrialization generally begins with the domestic production of import substitutes, and many have already achieved industrialization of technologically low-level consumer goods. However, the spread of industrialization to more or less complex capital goods and intermediate goods sectors is delayed by the narrowness of domestic markets and the shortage of skilled workers, even in oil-producing countries that are well-funded. Furthermore, if developing countries try to promote heavy chemical industrialization, they will inevitably have to import capital goods, foreign funds, and introduce new technologies. However, foreign currency earnings from agricultural and primary product exports have not kept up, and the balance of payments has deteriorated rapidly. In Latin America and Asia, an increasing number of countries are carrying huge amounts of accumulated debt that they cannot repay. Examples of these countries include Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Chile, South Korea, the Philippines, and Indonesia. In Latin America, the proportion of machinery manufacturing is low, and the proportion of consumer goods production sectors such as food, textile, and wood processing, including the automobile assembly sector, is high. Materials industries such as primary processing of minerals, metal processing, and the iron and steel industry have also developed considerably as export-oriented sectors, but each sector is characterized by an extremely high degree of monopoly by American foreign capital and some indigenous capital.In South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore, the introduction of foreign private capital is being actively promoted, and they are becoming more like branch factories of European, American, and Japanese multinational corporations, particularly in the assembly sector.

[Shinichi Tonomura]

Shinohara Sandahei, "Industrial Structure Theory" (1970, Chikuma Shobo) ▽ Nakamura Seiji, "Industrial Structure Theory" (1973, Shiobunsha) ▽ Miyazawa Kenichi and Takeuchi Hiroshi (eds.), "Japanese Industrial Classroom" (1976, Yuhikaku) ▽ Suzuki Keisuke, "American Economic History" (1972, University of Tokyo Press) ▽ J.D. Chambers, "The World's Factory" translated by Miyazaki Saiichi and Yonekawa Shinichi (1966, Iwanami Shoten) ▽ Hayashi Yujiro, "The Reality and Prospects of the French Economy" (1967, Toyo Keizai Shinposha) ▽ Ohno Eiji, Sumiya Kazuhiko and Morota Minoru (eds.), "The Historical Structure of German Capitalism" (1972, Yuhikaku) ▽ Nakamura Takatoshi, "Japanese Giant Corporations" (Iwanami Shinsho) ▽ "Andre G. Frank, translated by Jun Nishikawa, 'World Capitalism and Latin America' (1978, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Why is Asia Poor?' by Yoshiyuki Tsurumi (1982, Asahi Shimbun)" ▽ "Africa in Agony' by Yutaka Shinoda (Iwanami Shinsho)"

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

農業、林業、漁業、水産業、牧畜業、鉱業など、自然に存在する資源を採取または育成する産業に対して、これらの生産物に道具や機械によるなんらかの加工を施すことによって多種多様な生産物（製品）を、一定の場所（たとえば工場）で一定量、連続的に製造する産業を工業industry、または製造業manufactory industryとよんでいる。

［殿村晋一］

工業の分類

工業は、各種食品加工に始まり、繊維・木材の加工品、各種鉱物資源の加工品、機械類、武器などとその範囲は広く、日本標準産業分類では、生産される財の種類に基づき、この製造業の業種を21の中分類、151の小分類、568の細分類に分けている。

　工業化の発展段階を基準とするC・クラークの第一次、第二次、第三次産業という分類では、工業は、鉱業、建設業とともに第二次産業に含まれているが、鉱業は工業に原料を供給する産業であり、住宅、ビルディング、橋などをつくる建設業は工場生産を伴わない点において、工業（製造業）と区別される。第三次産業に含まれる商業・金融・保険・運輸・サービス部門は「もの」を生産しないという点で前二者と区別されるが、第一・第二次産業に資金・保障を提供したり、そこで付加された価値を「実現」するために不可欠な産業部門である。本来、工業的性格をもつ電力・ガス・水道などは、公益事業的性格が強いため、統計上、公益事業として分類され、製造業に含まれないのが普通である。

　工業は、一般に消費財（食料品や衣服など非耐久消費財と、家電や自動車など耐久消費財）と生産財（原材料、部品、機械など）とに分けて考察するが、その目的は、(1)工業において生産される財貨が消費されるにあたって、人間が生活するための直接消費の対象となる場合と、他の財貨を生産するために利用される（生産的消費という）場合とがある、(2)品質、機能に優れた消費財を大量に生産するためには、数多くの生産財が必要となり、各種の原材料や部品（中間製品）や機械を生産する工業が分化し、それだけ社会的分業が拡大深化する、(3)したがって、技術が進歩すればするほど、商品の多様化と専門化が進み、工業の種類が多様化し、同一財貨に対する加工度も高まる（迂回(うかい)生産の発展）、(4)工業が高度に発達するに伴い、生産財を生産する部門の比重が増大する傾向がある、などを明らかにすることにある。この場合、とくに機械など生産手段を生産する部門を投資財工業とよぶこともある。

　このほか、生産のために資材や材料を生産する素材産業、材料を加工して単品や部品などを生産する加工産業、部品や材料を用いて完成財を生産する組立て産業という分類も行われる。

　さらに、生産技術上の相違に注目して、機械が素材に物理的な加工を加えることによって生産工程が進行する機械工業と、大型の生産設備を採用し、主として容器内部の化学反応によって生産工程が進行する装置工業（石油化学、石油精製、鉄鋼、非鉄金属など）とに区分することもある。これは資本主義の発展とも、エネルギー分野の変化（水力―石炭―電力―石油）とも関連する区分で、20世紀後半には、技術革新に促されて、装置工業と機械工業のコンビナート的結合が急速に進行している。

［殿村晋一］

工業生産の発展過程

〔1〕家内工業　工業生産のもっとも原始的な形態で、「自家消費」や貢納のため、家族構成員が協力して原材料の採取と加工を行ったもので、原始社会から古代・中世社会を通じて広く存在した。加工品の物々交換は原料資源の有無を基盤として発生するが、それが生業として狩猟・漁業・農業から分離することはなかった。

〔2〕手工業　工業が独立の生業として農業から分離する最初の形態は手工業である。これは、消費者の注文による製品の生産（顧客生産＝注文生産）であった。古代都市文明の発生と同時に、王室直属の奴隷身分の手工業者が消費者である王室の材料給付によって生産に従事したが、都市文明の発展とともにしだいに独立するようになる。古典古代社会では奴隷を使用する奴隷制工房の展開もみられたが、独立の自営業として典型的な発展をみせるのは、中世ヨーロッパのギルド制手工業である。親方、職人、徒弟によって構成されるこの手工業経営は、近隣の領主や農民の需要にこたえたほか、彼らの製造する高級品は商人の手で遠隔地にまで運ばれた。手工業者たちは同業者の組合を組織し、相互扶助を強化したが、自由な生産活動は規制された。徒弟は親方の技術伝習を受け、職人として技能を磨き、親方への道が開けていた。親方と徒弟の関係は雇用関係というより師弟的な身分関係であった。手工業は、都市だけでなく、農村でも農家副業として広く分布し、日用的毛織物製品を中心に、編み靴下、編み帽子、フェルト帽、手袋、鉄製鍋(なべ)、フライパン、ナイフ、針、ピン、銅器などが、大青(たいせい)（染料）など新農産物とともに、農村経済を補完する役割を果たすようになる。農民による小営業＝小商品生産の展開がそれである。

〔3〕マニュファクチュア　小農民の副業から始まった農村工業は、当初、農民から小商品を買い集める商人（問屋）に、原材料、道具、資金等の面での依存を深め、問屋制前貸制度のもとで低廉な加工賃を受け取るにすぎなかったが、しだいに資力を拡充し、専業化し、雇用労働者を増やし、複数の問屋の仕事をこなしたり、自らの資力で経営を維持するものが出てくる。資本家的経営の始まりである。このような経営をマニュファクチュア（工場制手工業）という。労働手段は手工業と同じく道具であるが、年季を積んだ職人の一貫生産と違って、工程別に分業と協業のシステムが導入され、都市手工業に比べ、生産力は大幅に向上した。イギリスの場合、マニュファクチュアの全盛期は16世紀後半から18世紀前半にかけてであった。

〔4〕工場制工業　産業革命を契機に、蒸気機関を動力とする各種機械が、工業生産のあり方を大きく変え、生産力は飛躍的に拡大した。綿紡績から始まった機械制工業は、織布、さらには毛織物など軽工業部門から、鉄鋼業など重工業部門に普及していく。軽工業部門で使用された作業機は、ほぼ全工程を機械が加工し、労働者は機械の補助労働を遂行するだけの存在に転化するため、婦女子・未成年・児童労働など未熟練労働者が大幅に採用された。機械の生産性を高め、大量生産を図るため、労働者には低賃金と労働時間の延長が押し付けられ、加えて機械の回転数をあげることによって労働の強度も強化された。繊維工業の発展は、繊維機械など各種機械工業、さらには工作機械工業を、また、その素材工業である鉄鋼業を発展させた。鉄鋼・機械工業での機械は道具機から発達したものが多く、熟練労働者が若い未熟練労働者を監督しながら生産にあたる場合が多かった。

　この産業革命によって、イギリスでは、資本主義が本格的に確立し、国民経済に占める工業の比重が圧倒的に増大し、生産の主役を人間労働から機械に移し換え、資本の労働に対する支配が確立された。20世紀に入ると、工場制工業には、「オートメーション」化された自動化工場や巨大な装置をもつ化学工場やコンビナートが誕生する。最近ではコンピュータと産業用ロボットの導入による省力化の進展も著しい。

［殿村晋一］

世界の工業

最初に産業革命を実現したイギリスは、19世紀後半には世界の工業生産高の2分の1を占め、「世界の工場」として君臨した。20世紀に入るとアメリカの台頭が著しく、鉄鋼、自動車、化学工業を軸とする重化学工業の発展を基盤に、第二次世界大戦後には資本主義世界の最大・最強の工業国となり、戦後の先進国経済を特徴づける科学技術革命の先頭にたち、1953年に資本主義圏の工業総生産のなかば（55％）を占めるに至った。また、植民地の喪失や戦争の打撃を受けた西欧の復興援助と並行して、アメリカの巨大独占資本は積極的に海外に進出し、多くの世界企業・多国籍企業を誕生させた。冷戦体制下、資本主義世界体制を守る物質的基礎としての兵器生産（先端技術を集約した核ミサイル、航空・宇宙兵器など）が膨大な連邦政府の国防費支出によって肥大化し、アメリカ経済の軍事化と軍産複合体の形成が進み、民需部門（繊維、衣類、食品）が低下し、最近では自動車部門にも陰りがみえている。

　第二次大戦後の先進工業国では重化学工業の比重が大きく増大した。西ドイツは、1950年代には石炭・鉄鋼、60年代には化学・電機・車両などの諸工業が、「経済の奇跡」とよばれる復興・発展を達成した。機械・金属・化学を中心に産業の近代化に成功したイタリアも同様である。フランスは鉄鋼・機械・電機・輸送機器・エレクトロニクス・航空機・兵器など重化学工業に対する国家資金の融資等によって経済近代化計画（企業の大型化、合理化）を推し進め、EC市場に半製品の輸出を伸ばすなど、ECの経済的統合の中心となっている。イギリスは全体に「停滞する経済」に悩んでいる。とくに、イギリス産業の発展の柱であった石炭と鉄がエネルギーの転換や国内資源の老化のため振るわず、機械工業（航空機・自動車・工作機械など）・化学工業を中心とする重化学工業化はそれなりに進んでいるが、かつてイギリスを代表した繊維産業は大幅に後退し、高級毛織物の世界的名声もしだいに薄れつつある。このようななかで、もっとも急成長し、現在もなお高い工業生産指数を維持しているのが、日本の重化学工業である。1980年代初頭の先進資本主義国における各国製造業の大きさは、アメリカを100とすると、日本がおよそ53、旧西ドイツが38、フランスが23、イギリスが15というところである（各国GNPに占める製造業の比率から算出）。なお各国GNPに占める製造業の割合は、81年の数字で、アメリカは22.4％、フランス26.2％、イギリス20.2％、旧西ドイツ36.4％、日本30％、イタリアは鉱工業合計の数字で33.4％である。ドイツと日本の経済は製造業の比重が高く、経済のサービス化（サービス産業）の発展がやや遅れているといえるだろう。

［殿村晋一］

日本の工業

日本においては、幕末期には手工業が支配的で、織物業にようやくマニュファクチュアの形成が認められる程度のものであった。明治政府は、アジアにおける西欧列強の動きに対して、富国強兵のため近代工業の導入（殖産興業）を急ぎ、製糸業、綿紡績業、官営軍工廠(こうしょう)を育成し、生糸輸出の外貨収入で軍需資材の確保に努めた。日清(にっしん)・日露戦争の勝利を背景に、鉄鋼業（官営八幡(やはた)製鉄所）、造船業など重工業が育成され、第一次大戦後、軍需に支えられた重化学工業の発展が、1929年（昭和4）恐慌をカルテル結成や大量解雇を含む合理化の強行を通じて切り抜けることによって可能となり、日中戦争前年には重化学工業の生産が軽工業を追い越し、戦時体制下では中小工場までが軍需生産に総動員された。農業への重税と「女工哀史」に代表される低賃金が、軍需と植民地市場依存型の工業発展を可能にしたのである。

　第二次大戦で壊滅した工業は、敗戦時の1945年（昭和20）には、戦前水準（1934～36年平均）の10分の1に落ち込んだ。資金・機械・原材料の不足に耐えながらもしだいに回復し、47年には戦前の2分の1に達し、朝鮮特需を契機に急速に拡大軌道にのり、早くも51年には戦前水準を回復し、55年以降、重化学工業部門（機械・金属・化学など）の急成長を中心に高度成長期（～73年）に入った。57年に戦前の2倍、63年には5倍、70年にはほぼ14倍に達し、世界有数の工業国となった。この高度成長の原因としては、(1)戦後の民主的な諸改革が国内市場の拡大に寄与したこと、(2)欧米先進国からの技術導入を吸収・改良した優秀な労働力（技術者・労働者）が存在したこと、(3)比較的軽微な軍事費負担によって可能となった最新鋭機械に対する民間設備投資の拡大が工業に高い国際競争力を付与し、輸出が急成長したこと、などがあげられる。73年末の第一次オイル・ショックにより、工業生産は、エネルギー価格の高騰、総需要抑制（民間住宅投資・民間設備投資・公共投資の不振）から素材工業を先頭に内需が停滞し、また円高ドル安のため、輸出産業・中小企業を中心に深刻な不況に陥った。79年の第二次オイル・ショックを迎えて、素材産業（鉄鋼・化学・セメント・紙パルプなど）は、コスト面でエネルギー高騰を吸収できず、長期停滞を余儀なくされたが、加工組立て工業（自動車・家電・一般機械・工作機械など）では、徹底した合理化と省エネルギー対策（エレクトロニクスの応用による機械の軽量化・高機能化など）を推進し、高付加価値を生む高加工度型産業を中心になお高い国際競争力を維持している。IC（集積回路）はかつての鉄にかわって「産業のコメ」とよばれるようになった。また、繊維・造船・光学機械など労働集約型工業の韓国、東南アジアなどへの進出、さらには資源確保、経済摩擦解消のための資本のカナダ、オーストラリア、南米、アメリカ、イギリスなどへの進出（パルプ・金属・自動車など）も最近の特徴である。

［殿村晋一］

発展途上国の工業

発展途上国の工業化は、一般に、まず輸入代替品の国産化から始まり、技術的に低位な消費財の工業化を達成している国も多い。しかし多少とも複雑な資本財や中間財部門への工業化の波及は、資金的に恵まれている産油諸国を含めて、国内市場の狭隘(きょうあい)性と技能工の不足が最大の障害となってこれを遅らせている。また、発展途上国で重化学工業化を推進しようとすれば、資本財の輸入、海外資金、技術導入の増加が避けられない。しかし、農産物や第一次産品の輸出による外貨収入が追い付かず、国際収支が急激に悪化し、ラテンアメリカやアジアでは、累積債務が返済不能なまでの巨額に達している国が増えている。ブラジル、メキシコ、アルゼンチン、ベネズエラ、チリ、韓国、フィリピン、インドネシアなどがそれである。ラテンアメリカの場合、工業は、機械工業の比率は低く、自動車組立て部門を含む食品・繊維・木材加工など消費財生産部門の比重が大きい。鉱産物の一次加工、金属加工、鉄鋼業など素材産業も輸出向け部門としてかなり発展しているが、いずれの分野においてもアメリカ系外国資本と一部土着資本の独占度がきわめて高いのが特徴である。韓国、台湾、タイ、マレーシア、シンガポールでは、外国の民間資本の導入が積極的に進められ、組立て部門を中心に、欧米・日本などの多国籍企業の「分工場的性格」を強めている。

［殿村晋一］

『篠原三代平著『産業構造論』（1970・筑摩書房）』▽『中村静治著『産業構造論』（1973・汐文社）』▽『宮沢健一・竹内宏編『日本産業教室』（1976・有斐閣）』▽『鈴木圭介編著『アメリカ経済史』（1972・東京大学出版会）』▽『J・D・チェンバース著、宮崎犀一・米川伸一訳『世界の工場』（1966・岩波書店）』▽『林雄二郎編『フランス経済の現実と展望』（1967・東洋経済新報社）』▽『大野英二・住谷一彦・諸田実編『ドイツ資本主義の史的構造』（1972・有斐閣）』▽『中村孝俊著『日本の巨大企業』（岩波新書）』▽『アンドレ・G・フランク著、西川潤訳『世界資本主義とラテンアメリカ』（1978・岩波書店）』▽『鶴見良行著『アジアはなぜ貧しいか』（1982・朝日新聞社）』▽『篠田豊著『苦悶するアフリカ』（岩波新書）』