A tool used to carry out a punishment. In the broad sense, it is often understood to include tools used for torture (torture tools) and tools for restraint and punishment (punishment of prisoners) (prison tools). Penal tools reflect the penal ideology and view of crime of each era. Historically, from the end of the Middle Ages to the beginning of the early modern period, there were many particularly cruel types of punishment. At that time, punishment was carried out with the intention of disciplining criminals by inflicting physical and mental pain on them, and at the same time intimidating and instilling fear in the general public, thereby preventing crime. In addition, because there was a strong feeling that those who committed crimes were literally those who committed religious and moral crimes, punishment naturally came to involve cruel means and methods. Furthermore, torture, which is used to punish miscreants who do not confess despite strong suspicion of a crime, was thought to be legally permissible. There are also examples of legislation (suspect punishment) that punish when it is determined that a person has committed a crime, even if the evidence required to legally prove a guilt is not available, and in practice, the boundary between corporal punishment and torture is unclear. Moreover, at present it is unclear whether some items are death tools in the strict sense, torture devices, or simply decorative items used for intimidation, making it difficult to make a strict distinction between death tools in the strict sense, torture devices, and prison devices. In any case, since the modern era, the above-mentioned ideas on punishment and views on crime have been academically reflected upon, and there has been an overwhelming trend towards the abolition of corporal punishment and torture. As for the method of execution of the death penalty, leaving aside the issue of abolition, executions are now conducted in secret and with the least painful method possible. In Japan, a proclamation by the Dajokan in 1879 (Meiji 12) abolished the practice of beheading (public hanging), and the following year, the old Penal Code stipulated that the only method of execution of the death penalty was hanging, and that it was to be carried out in secret within a prison. The Constitution of Japan states that "torture and cruel punishments by public officials are absolutely prohibited" (Article 36) and that "no person shall be held in bondage of any kind" (first half of Article 18). [Shuichi Susuki] Death Penalty InstrumentsThere are two types of execution tools for the death penalty: the gallows and the gallows post. The gallows was used in Europe, and the gallows post in the Orient. In Japan, the New Code of Laws of 1870 (Meiji 3) adopted the gallows, but since the Dajokan proclamation of 1873, the gallows has been used. The height from the ground to the footboard is 9 shaku (about 273 cm), the height from the footboard to the beam to which the hangman's noose is attached is 8 shaku, the footboard is 3 shaku wide and 6 shaku long, and the floor on which it is laid is 9 shaku wide and 8 shaku 4 sun long, making it a ground-level gallows type. However, due to the inconvenience of transporting the death row inmate to the place of hanging, the use of a trench type platform on the same plane as the floor is permitted. Methods still used in foreign countries include beheading, shooting, electrocution (using an electric chair to electrocute the inmate), and gassing (filling a gas chamber with hydrogen cyanide gas to suffocate the inmate). Historically, there was the cross post for crucifixion, and for decapitation, the beheading block and hatchet used in England until the mid-18th century, and the guillotine, which was used in France from the end of the 18th century, are well-known. Other methods of execution include dismemberment, charioteering (where the victim lies on a wheel, their hands and feet are tied, and the blood vessels in their limbs are cut as the wheel turns), burial alive, waterboarding, and burning at the stake. Unique execution devices include the German Bippen, which was used for waterboarding (where the criminal is hung and lowered into the water in a seesaw style), and the hole-searing box, which was used for sawing in Japan during the Edo period. Sawing was an injunction imposed on those who had killed their master. The criminal was placed in a box measuring 3 feet square and 2 feet 5 inches deep, a shackle was placed on the criminal's neck and nailed to the box. A bamboo saw smeared with the criminal's blood and an ordinary saw were placed next to the box, and anyone who wished was allowed to saw the criminal's head with them. After exposing the victim to the public for two days, the criminal was crucified. In the Edo period, the arson pillar used for the burning punishment for arson consisted of a large bamboo pole split in half and a hanging bamboo pole attached to it. In Japan, the execution kettle was used in the kamairi punishment from the Middle Ages onwards, and it is well known that the great thief Ishikawa Goemon was subjected to this punishment, but it was abolished by Tokugawa Ieyasu. [Shuichi Susuki] Corporal punishmentThe main forms of corporal punishment are flogging and caning. In Japan, these were used as punishments until the revised Code of Criminal Law in 1873 (Meiji 6), but were abolished in the old Penal Code of 1880. According to the New Code of Criminal Law, a whip is made from a piece of bamboo, 1 shaku 8 sun (54.5 cm) long, filled with hemp and wrapped in Kanzeyori. A cane is 2 shaku 1 sun long. The doshin cane used in the Edo period is made of bundles of straw wrapped in Kanzeyori, 1 shaku 9 sun long and 4.5 sun thick. A famous tool for beating punishment used in Europe is the Russian whip. It is made of leather cord and iron wire tied together, with the tip bent to make it sharp. There are also various types of beatings used as torture and imprisonment tools, such as the Bamberg torture tool used in Europe, the broom butt used in Japan during the Edo period, and the jinjo (a stick used in the early Meiji period). Corporal punishment includes beatings, as well as physical injuries (gouging out eyes, cutting off ears, tongues, noses, hands, fingers, etc.), branding, tattoos, and one unique example is the barbed gag known as the Dame's Bridle, which was used on women who were known to be false accusers. Other tools for punishment include the stock, which handcuffs or leg cuffs the criminal while seated, and the pillary, which has the criminal's neck and hands put through holes in a board while standing; the Chinese neck cuff is well known. In Japan, too, during the Ritsuryo period, shackles (neck cuffs) and leg cuffs (leg cuffs) were used as a means of aggravating imprisonment, and hand chains were used in the Edo period. The leg cuffs were also used as a prison tool until the Prison Law was enacted in 1908 (Meiji 41). [Shuichi Susuki] Torture and Prison EquipmentTorture was abolished in Japan by a proclamation of the Dajokan in 1879 (Meiji 12), but was legally permitted before that. Torture devices used included beatings, binding devices, pressure devices, barbed devices, fire, and water. Ropes were used as binding devices, and in the Edo period, romon (prison wardens) included the cross, agenawa (high rope), waribishi (split diamond), shitamawashi (lower circle), hawk feather, shime (shime), and oizuru (strap rope), but for particularly severe investigations, there were ebi-zeme (shrimp torture), tsuri-zeme (fish torture), and suruga-doi (suruga wardens). There are many similar devices in Europe, and a unique one is the binding device known as the "road sweeper's daughter" displayed in the Tower of London, which is a torture device that squeezes the knees and chest together and draws the legs toward the buttocks. One type of pressure device used in Japan during the Edo period is the soroban-zeme (abacus torture). The person sits upright on a abacus, and a plate of Izu stone is placed on top of the knees. In Europe, there were thumb screws that pressed the thumb, and the "Pomeranian hat" that was an iron ring that pressed the head. Examples of spiked implements include the "Spanish boot," which compresses the legs and injures them with thorns, the torture chair, which is clamped to a chair with spikes, and the "spiked barrel," which places a person inside a spiked container. The "iron maiden," a human-shaped container with needles attached to the inside, which pierces the body when a person is placed inside and the lid is closed, and when the lid is opened, the person inside falls into a trench below, is a famous torture implement from medieval Germany, but its purpose and whether it was used at all are unclear. Those that use fire and water include the aburi-kago (roasting basket) and the sumaki (wrapping mat). The sakukanbako (sweat box) was used as a prison tool for punishment, but it was a tube made of iron with a small breathing hole, similar to the "iron maiden," in which a person was placed in direct sunlight or near a fire, and was used in British penal colonies in Australia and in the state of Georgia in the United States. [Shuichi Susuki] “Japanese Penal History” by Masajiro Takikawa (1961, Aogabo) [Reference] |©Minoru Sugai Hand chain Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
刑罰の執行のために使用される道具。広義の刑具として、そのほかに拷問のために使用される道具(拷問具)や検束・懲罰(在監者に対する処罰)などの用具(獄具)も含めて理解されることが多い。刑具は各時代の刑罰思想と犯罪観を反映する。 歴史的にみて、中世末期から近世初頭にかけて、とくに残虐な種類のものが多い。当時、刑罰は犯罪人に肉体的・精神的苦痛を与えることによってこれを懲らしめ、あわせて一般人を威嚇し、恐怖を抱かせることによって犯罪防圧の効果をあげようという意図のもとに行われた。また、罪を犯す者は文字どおり宗教的・道徳的な罪悪を行う者であるという感じ方が強かったので、刑罰はおのずから残虐な手段・方法を内容とするものとなった。さらに、犯罪の疑いが濃厚であるのに自白をしないふらちな者を責める拷問は、法的にも許容されるべきものと考えられた。また、法律上有罪とするために必要な証拠は得られないが、罪を犯したことに間違いないと判断される場合には処罰するという立法例(嫌疑(けんぎ)刑)もあり、実質的にみて、身体刑と拷問との限界はあいまいである。しかも、現在のところ、それが狭義の刑具なのか、拷問具なのか、それとも単なる威嚇のための飾りであったのか不明のものもあって、狭義の刑具、拷問具、獄具を厳密に区別することはむずかしい。 いずれにせよ、近代以降、上記のような刑罰思想・犯罪観が学問的に反省されるようになり、身体刑や拷問は圧倒的に廃止の傾向にあり、死刑の執行方法についても、廃止問題は別論として、これを非公開とし、できるだけ苦痛を与えない方法を用いるようにしている。日本では、1879年(明治12)の太政官(だじょうかん)布告で梟首(きょうしゅ)(晒首(さらしくび))を廃止し、翌年の旧刑法は死刑の執行方法を絞首一つと定め、監獄内において非公開で行うことにした。日本国憲法は、「公務員による拷問及び残虐な刑罰は、絶対にこれを禁ずる」(36条)とし、「何人(なんぴと)も、いかなる奴隷的拘束も受けない」(18条前段)としている。 [須々木主一] 死刑具死刑の刑具には、絞首のための絞架・絞柱がある。絞架はヨーロッパで、絞柱は東洋で用いられた。日本でも、1870年(明治3)の新律綱領では絞柱を採用しているが、73年の太政官布告以来、絞架を用いている。地上から踏板までの高さが9尺(約273センチメートル)、踏板から絞縄鐶(こうじょうかん)を取り付ける梁(はり)までの高さが8尺、踏板は幅3尺、長さ6尺、これを敷設する地上9尺の床は、幅6尺、長さ8尺4寸という地上絞架式になっている。ただし、死刑囚を絞首の場所まで連行することの不便により、台を床と同じ平面に設けた堀割式の採用が認められている。外国では現在でも行われている方法としては斬首(ざんしゅ)、銃殺、電気殺(電気椅子(いす)を用いて感電死させる)、ガス殺(ガス室に青酸ガスをいれて窒息死させる)などがある。 歴史的には磔(はりつけ)のための磔柱(たくちゅう)があり、斬首のためには、イギリスで18世紀中ごろまで用いられた首斬(くびきり)台と手斧(ておの)や、とくにフランスで18世紀末から用いられたギロチンが有名である。そのほか、死刑の執行方法には、四つ裂き、車刑(車輪の上に寝かせて手足を縛り、四肢(しし)の血管を切り裂いて車輪を回す)、生き埋め、水責め、火炙(ひあぶ)りなど種類が多い。特異な刑具としては、水責めに用いられたドイツのビッペン(罪人をつるして水にシーソー式に入れる)や、江戸時代に日本で鋸挽(のこぎりびき)に用いられた穴晒(あなさらし)箱がある。鋸挽は主殺しに科したもので、3尺四方、深さ2尺5寸の箱に罪人を入れ、首械(くびかせ)をしてこれを箱に釘(くぎ)付けし、かたわらに罪人の血を塗った竹鋸と普通の鋸とを置き、希望者に罪人の首をこれで挽くことを許し、2日晒したのち磔にした。江戸時代、放火に対する焚刑(ふんけい)に用いられた火罪柱は、大竹を二つ割りにした輪竹・つり竹をつけたものである。日本では中世以降釜煎(かまいり)の刑に刑釜が用いられ、大盗賊石川五右衛門(ごえもん)がこの刑に処せられたのは有名であるが、徳川家康によって廃止された。 [須々木主一] 身体刑の刑具身体刑のおもなものは笞(ち)・杖刑(じょうけい)である。日本では、1873年(明治6)の改定律例まではこれを刑種に採用しているが、80年の旧刑法では廃止した。新律綱領によれば、笞(むち)は竹片でつくったもので、長さ1尺8寸(54.5センチメートル)、麻を入れて観世縒(かんぜより)で巻く。杖(つえ)の場合には長さが2尺1寸になる。江戸時代に用いられた同心杖は、藁(わら)を束ねて、観世縒で巻いた長さ1尺9寸、太さ4寸5分のものである。ヨーロッパで用いられた、たたき刑の道具として有名なものにロシアむちがある。これは皮紐(かわひも)と鉄線とを結び合わせ先端を曲げてとがらせている。また打具には、拷問具、獄具として種々のものがあり、ヨーロッパで用いられたバンベルクの拷問具、日本で江戸時代に用いられた箒尻(ほうきじり)、明治初年に用いられた訊杖(じんじょう)などは拷問具である。なお身体刑には、たたき刑のほかに、身体を障害する刑(目のくりぬき、耳・舌・鼻・手・指の切断など)、烙印(らくいん)、入れ墨などがあるが、特異なものとしては、浮言流説をなす女性に用いたダームズ・ブライドルとよばれる有棘(ゆうきょく)の口枷(くちかせ)がある。 そのほか、晒(さらし)のための刑具に、罪人が座った状態で手械・足械をかけるストック、立ったままで首と手を板の穴に通すピラリーなどの械があり、中国の首械は有名である。日本でも、律令(りつりょう)時代には、徒刑の加重手段として盤枷(はんか)(首械)、(たい)(足械)があり、江戸時代には手鎖があった。(たい)は、1908年(明治41)の監獄法制定まで獄具としても用いられた。 [須々木主一] 拷問具・獄具拷問は日本では1879年(明治12)の太政官布告で廃止されたが、それ以前は法律上も認められていた。拷問具には、打具のほか、縛具、圧迫具、有棘具、火や水などが用いられた。縛具には縄を用い、江戸時代の牢問(ろうもん)として十文字、上縄(あげなわ)、割菱(わりびし)、下廻(したまわし)、返し鷹(たか)の羽、注連(しめ)、笈摺(おいずる)などの縄打が行われたが、とくに厳しい吟味のためには、海老責(えびぜめ)、釣り責、駿河問(するがどい)があった。ヨーロッパにもこれに類するものが多く、特異なものとしては、ロンドン塔に陳列されている「道路掃除人の娘」といわれる縛具があり、これは膝(ひざ)と胸を締め合わせ、足を尻に引き寄せる拷問具であった。圧迫具には、日本で江戸時代に用いられた算盤責(そろばんぜめ)がある。算板(さんばん)に人を正座させ、板状の伊豆(いず)石を膝の上に重ねて行われる。ヨーロッパには、親指を圧迫するサムスクリュー、頭部を圧迫する鉄輪の「ポンメルンの帽子」などがあった。 有棘具としては、脚部を圧迫し、とげで傷つける「スペインの長靴」、とげのある椅子に締め付ける拷問椅子、とげのある器物内に人を入れる「有棘樽(たる)」などがある。人型の容器の内部に針をつけ、人を入れて蓋(ふた)を閉じると、その身体を刺し、蓋を開くと中の人が下の堀割に落ちるようになっている「鉄の処女」は、ドイツ中世の刑具として有名であるが、その使用目的、使用の有無は明らかでない。 火・水を用いるものには炙籠(あぶりかご)・簀巻(すまき)がある。なお、搾汗箱(さくかんばこ)は、獄具として懲罰に用いられたものではあるが、小さな息穴をつけた鉄製の「鉄の処女」のような筒中に人を入れ、直射日光の下や火熱の傍らに置くもので、イギリスのオーストラリア流刑地や、アメリカのジョージア州で用いられた。 [須々木主一] 『滝川政次郎著『日本行刑史』(1961・青蛙房)』 [参照項目] |©須貝 稔"> 手鎖 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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