Essentially, it refers to a national economy in which economic development is not a natural process, but is under "conscious control" from the society side. In reality, this "conscious control" takes the form of state control over plans formulated by the state and their implementation. As seen in the example of the Soviet Union, it was customary in the past for almost all production, distribution, and distribution to be under the control of central planning, but this is not the only form of conscious control. The Yugoslav economic system, which combines workers' self-management and a market economy, had already moved away from the Soviet-style centrally planned economy model in the 1950s, and Hungary moved basically to a decentralized model with the economic reforms of 1968. In other Soviet and Eastern European countries, centralization was somewhat relaxed, and from the end of the 1970s, a more market-oriented "third wave" reform was started in Hungary. China under the reforms of Deng Xiaoping and then the Soviet Union under perestroika joined this and it seemed as if they were approaching "market socialism," but this trend was interrupted by politically led systemic transformations such as the "Eastern European Revolution" in 1989 and the "New Russian Revolution" in 1991, leading to the collapse of the planned economy system. China's economic system, which advocates a "socialist market economy," can also be said to be a type of "market socialism" that is very different from the image of a planned economy, but its economic reality is easier to understand if you view it as a variant of developmental dictatorship capitalism that maintains a particular political ideology (Marxism-Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought) as its pretense. [Tsuneaki Sato] The idea of planned economyIt goes without saying that it was Marx and Engels who linked the idea of conscious control of economic development by society (human beings) with socialism. They were extremely ascetic about drawing up detailed blueprints of future society, but they raised the issue of the general functional principles of future society, to the extent that they could be derived from their main task of elucidating the laws of motion of the capitalist economy. At the core of this was the idea of placing social production under the conscious and planned control of society by eliminating commodity production and market mechanisms. In any society, it is necessary to allocate available production factors (labor, equipment, materials, and other means of production) to various sectors according to the various needs of society (resource allocation), and as long as the progress of the economy and society is assumed, it is necessary to constantly improve social labor productivity (efficiency). In a capitalist economy based on private ownership of the means of production, these two tasks of resource allocation and efficiency improvement are basically handled by market mechanisms. Social resources are shifted to the production of things that can be sold more profitably on the market, and an output structure that meets the various needs of society is created. At the same time, social production costs are reduced through competition between individual capitals to obtain excess profits. However, since all of the above is carried out through fluctuations in supply and demand and prices in the market, it is inevitably a retroactive and natural growth adjustment process that is accompanied by social consequences such as depression, bankruptcy, and unemployment. In contrast, under socialism, where the means of production were transferred to social ownership, the production, circulation, and distribution of material goods were placed under the conscious control of society, and economic development was assumed to be based on a national economic plan drawn up in advance. Therefore, instead of the indirect, ex post facto, and natural growth-based resource allocation and social division of labor adjustment mode under capitalism, Marx and Engels' image of a socialist economy was that the entire economic society could be organized like "one factory." In this view, the difference in the systems between capitalism and socialism can be considered to be directly linked to the fundamental opposition (the incompatibility of the two) between the economic adjustment mechanisms of "market" and "planning." From this perspective, it is not surprising that socialism = planned economy = non-market economy. [Tsuneaki Sato] Basic Problems of Planned EconomyThe Soviet-style centralized planned economy system was established due to (1) the above-mentioned view of socialist economy, (2) the experience of wartime communism immediately after the revolution, and (3) historical circumstances, such as the need for extreme concentration of resource allocation due to the rapid industrialization strategy that prioritized heavy industry and national defense, especially in developing countries. It was characterized by a high degree of centralization of decision-making and an extreme elimination of market factors, and in that sense it seemed to match the image of classical socialism. However, while a centralized planned economy is manageable when the economic standard is low and the industrial structure and industrial linkages are relatively simple, when the economy becomes sophisticated and complex, planned control becomes difficult, even from the perspective of information processing alone, and it leads to negative results such as bureaucratic complexity and reduced efficiency. In the debate over economic reform after the criticism of Stalin, there was almost complete agreement on this point. There are four reasons why the "one factory" image does not hold up in a real planned economy. The first is unknowability: planning authorities are not omniscient and omnipotent, and the economy always has black-box aspects, which tend to increase as the economy becomes more sophisticated and complex. The second is the inadequacy of data processing technology: even the latest mathematical techniques and computers cannot solve the problem of creating a consistent central plan that incorporates the diverse needs of society. The third is "complexity," which means that the economy is not made up of an orchestra or a sports team unified with a single purpose, but of a "confederation" of microeconomic agents each pursuing its own partial interests. Excessive control that ignores this point leads to conflicts of interest and, conversely, reduces the controllability of the economy, becoming a source of waste and inefficiency. Fourth, in order for planning to properly address the two issues common to all systems, resource allocation and efficiency improvement, it must be based on accurate social labor accounting. Since direct labor accounting in real terms is impossible, the proper use of price indicators is essential. This is why, after the Stalinist critique, planned economies were forced to use market economic categories such as prices, profits, and interest, as opposed to the classical socialist image of a non-market economy. The well-known waste and inefficiency of planned economies were due to the lack of proper solutions to the four basic problems mentioned above. [Tsuneaki Sato] The idea of a decentralized planned economyConsidering the above, it is only natural that the debate and economic reforms following the criticism of Stalin have revolved around the issue of using market mechanisms, in addition to the issue of decentralizing decision-making. A decentralized planned economy is based on the idea that the central government retains control over important macroeconomic decisions that determine the structure and direction of development of the national economy, while recognizing the autonomy of enterprises and leaving microeconomic activities to the market within the framework of the "rules of the game" determined by the central government. This is an attempt to use market mechanisms as a subsystem within the framework of macroeconomic decision-making through central planning, and was not considered to immediately mean a systematic approach to capitalism. The dividing line between the traditional centrally planned economy model and the decentralized model has usually been considered to be whether the command system, which breaks down central planning into a large number of mandatory planning indicators and issues them to enterprises, and the administrative allocation system of production goods, which is the backbone of this command system, are abolished. From this criterion, Yugoslavia, as well as Hungary, crossed the line early on, but other countries remained within the framework of partial decentralization systems or relaxed centralization. Even within this framework, the number of mandatory indicators was gradually reduced and the use of price indicators was increasingly emphasized, but the latter was still linked to the former, which was a notable feature until the system transformation at the end of the 1980s. In contrast, Hungary adopted a more market-oriented approach as part of the new wave of economic reform that began in the 1980s. On the other hand, in Yugoslavia, which was said to have a socialist market economy, the weak bottom-up consultation system and weak planned control as a result of decentralization came under criticism amid the economic difficulties that surfaced from the late 1970s, and ultimately became one of the factors that contributed to the collapse of the federation. [Tsuneaki Sato] Mixed Economic SystemThe "one factory" image of the classical planned economy was, in other words, the idea that the completion of a socialist planned economy was infinitely approaching a single state-owned and state-run economy, but in the 1980s, a remarkable movement was underway, led by Hungary and China, to design an economic system in the opposite direction. There were many differences between Hungary and China, which moved to a de facto small farming system with a production responsibility system at the farm level and adopted a bold open-door policy based on special economic zones and development zones, but what they had in common was a movement toward a "socialist-style mixed economy system" that combined various forms of ownership, such as state-owned (publicly-owned) enterprises, cooperative enterprises, small collective enterprises, and private enterprises, and various management forms through the separation of ownership and management (for example, a bidding and contracting system for publicly-owned enterprises), while still based on public ownership. Some of these were expedient measures taken to revitalize the economy, but the fact that a viable system of a socialist planned economy was converging into this mixed economy system was significant. The trend of the 1980s, which was approaching market socialism through the establishment of a mixed economy, logically contained "regime change" (for example, the bold expansion of the private sector), but was directly interrupted by the major change in the political system caused by the Eastern European Revolution in 1989. Since one-party rule and command-based planned economy were inseparable in Soviet-style socialism, the collapse of the former meant the collapse of the latter at the same time, and the process of "recapitalization" took over. However, since a modern, institutionalized capitalist market economy did not immediately emerge in its place, a period of transitional economy that was unique and full of contradictions continued for nearly 20 years. The accession of five Central and Eastern European countries to the EU (European Union) (May 2004) is an important milestone in the end of the "transitional period." However, the emerging capitalism in Central and Eastern European countries shows signs of moving away from European-style capitalism, which traditionally placed emphasis on social security, and is far from forming a stable regime change capitalism. [Tsuneaki Sato] "Socialist Planned Economy" by M. Elman, translated by Sato Tsuneaki and Nakakane Kazutsugu (1982, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "The Economics of Anti-Equilibrium and Shortage" by J. Kornai, edited and translated by Morita Tsuneo and Kadowaki Nobuyuki (1983, Nippon Hyoronsha)" ▽ "The Political Economy of Shortage" by J. Kornai, edited and translated by Morita Tsuneo (1984, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Possibilities for Economic Reform" by J. Kornai, edited and translated by Morita Tsuneo (1986, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "From Marx to the Market: Socialism in Search of an Economic System" by W. Bruss and K. Laski, translated by Sato Tsuneaki and Nishimura Yoshiaki (1995, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "From Socialism to Capitalism: The Development of Market Policies in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe" by Nishimura Yoshiaki (1995, Nippon Hyoronsha)" ▽ "Post-Socialist Economic Systems" by Tsuneaki Sato (1997, Iwanami Shoten) [References] | | | | | | |Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
本来的には、経済発展が自然成長的に行われるのではなく、社会の側からの「意識的制御」のもとに置かれているような国民経済をいう。現実には、この「意識的制御」は国家が策定する計画とその実施に対する国家的コントロールという形をとり、ソ連の例にみるように、生産、流通、分配のほとんどすべてが集権的な中央計画の統制下に置かれるというのが過去の通例であったが、それだけが意識的制御の唯一の形態ではない。労働者自主管理と市場経済を結合したユーゴスラビアの経済システムはすでに1950年代にソ連型の集権的計画経済モデルから離脱しているし、ハンガリーは1968年の経済改革で基本的に分権モデルに移行した。その他のソ連、東欧諸国でも、集権制はいくらか緩和の方向に向かい、1970年代末からは、より市場志向の強い「第三波」改革がハンガリーで開始された。これに鄧小平(とうしょうへい/トンシヤオピン)改革下の中国、ついでペレストロイカ下のソ連が合流し「市場社会主義」に接近するかに思われたが、この流れも1989年の「東欧革命」、1991年の「新ロシア革命」による政治主導の体制転換で中断され、計画経済体制が崩壊することになった。ひとり「社会主義市場経済」を掲げる中国の経済体制も計画経済イメージとはきわめて異なる「市場社会主義」の一種といえないこともないが、その経済的実体は、特殊な政治イデオロギー(マルクス・レーニン主義、毛沢東思想)をたてまえとして維持する開発独裁型資本主義の変種とみたほうがわかりやすい。 [佐藤経明] 計画経済の思想社会(人間)による経済発展の意識的制御という思想を社会主義と結び付けたのは、いうまでもなくマルクスとエンゲルスである。彼らは将来社会の詳細な青写真を描くことにはきわめて禁欲的であったが、自分たちの主要な課題とした資本主義経済の運動法則の解明から引き出される限りで、将来社会の一般的な機能原理の問題を提起した。その核心をなすのが、商品生産、市場機構の除去によって社会的な生産を社会の意識的・計画的制御のもとに置くという構想である。 およそどのような社会も、利用可能な生産要素(労働と設備、資材などの生産手段)を社会のさまざまな欲望に応じて各種の部門に配分(資源配分)することが必要であるし、また、経済社会の進歩を前提とする限り、社会的な労働生産性(効率)を絶えず向上させることが必要となる。生産手段の私的所有に基づく資本主義経済のもとでは、この資源配分と効率向上という二つの課題は、基本的には市場機構によって処理される。市場でより有利に売れるものの生産に社会の資源が移動してゆき、社会のさまざまな欲望に見合った産出構造がつくりあげられていく。同時に超過利潤を得ようとする個別資本の競争を通じて、社会的生産コストの低下が図られる。しかしながら、以上はいずれも市場での需給と価格の変動を通じて行われるから、必然的に事後的かつ自然成長的な調整過程となり、恐慌や破産、失業のような社会的帰結を伴わずにはいない。 これに反し、生産手段を社会的所有に移した社会主義のもとでは、物質的財貨の生産、流通、分配は社会の意識的な制御のもとに置かれ、経済発展はあらかじめ作成された国民経済計画に基づいて行われると想定された。したがって、資本主義のもとでの間接的、事後的、自然成長的な資源配分と社会的分業の調整様式にかわって、経済社会全体を「一つの工場」のように組織することができる、というのが、マルクス、エンゲルスの社会主義経済像であった。そこでは、資本主義と社会主義という体制上の違いがそのまま、「市場」と「計画」という経済調整機構の原理的対立(両者の非両立性)と結び付けられていたと考えることができる。この考え方からすれば、社会主義=計画経済=非市場的経済ととらえられていたとしても、不思議ではない。 [佐藤経明] 計画経済の基本問題ソ連型の集権的な計画経済制度が成立したのは、(1)以上のような社会主義経済観、(2)革命直後の戦時共産主義の経験と、(3)とりわけ後進国における重工業・国防優先の急速な工業化戦略が資源配分の極度の集中を必要としたという歴史的事情によるものであった。意思決定が高度に集権化され、市場的要素が極度に排除されていたのがその特徴であり、その限りで古典の社会主義像に合致しているように思われた。しかしながら、集権型の計画経済は、経済水準が低く、産業構造や産業連関が比較的単純な段階ではまだしも操作可能であるが、経済が高度化し複雑化した段階では、情報処理だけから考えてみても、計画的制御は逆に困難となり、官僚主義的煩瑣(はんさ)化や効率低下といった否定的結果をもたらす。スターリン批判後の経済改革論争のなかで、この点に関してはほぼ完全な同意が得られた。 現実の計画経済において「一つの工場」イメージが成り立たない理由は、次の4点にある。第一は不可知性で、計画当局は全知全能ではなく、経済にはつねにブラックボックス的部分が伴うが、経済の高度化、複雑化につれて、このブラックボックス的部分はむしろ増大する傾向にある。第二はデータ処理技術の不備性で、最新の数理的技法とコンピュータを駆使しても、社会の多様なニーズを盛り込んだ整合的な中央計画作成という課題を解くことはできない。第三は「複雑性」で、経済を構成しているのは、ある単一の目的で統合されたオーケストラやスポーツのチームではなく、それぞれ独自の部分的利益を追求するミクロ経済主体の「連合」であるということである。この点を無視した過剰制御は、利害の背反から、逆に経済の制御可能性を低め、浪費や非効率の源泉となる。第四に、先に触れた資源配分と効率向上という、いかなる体制にも共通する二つの課題を計画化で正しく処理するためには、計画化が正確な社会的労働計算に立脚しなければならないが、現物タームの直接労働計算は不可能であるから、価格的指標の適切な利用が不可欠となる。スターリン批判後、非市場的経済という古典の社会主義像と反対に、価格、利潤、利子といった市場経済のカテゴリーを計画経済が利用せざるをえなくなった理由は、ここにあった。計画経済における周知の浪費と非効率は、以上四つの基本問題に適切な解決が与えられていないことによるものであった。 [佐藤経明] 分権的計画経済の構想以上のように考えれば、スターリン批判後の論争と経済改革が、意思決定の分権化の問題と並んで、市場機構の利用の問題をもう一つの軸として転回してきたのは、当然というほかはない。分権的計画経済は、国民経済の構造と発展方向を決めるような重要なマクロ経済的意思決定は中央が握りながら、企業の自律性を認め、ミクロ経済活動を中央の決める「ゲームのルール」の枠内で市場にゆだねる構想にたっている。それは、中央計画によるマクロ経済的意思決定の枠組みのなかで、サブシステムとして市場機構を利用しようとするもので、資本主義への体制的接近をただちに意味するものではないとされていた。 伝統的な集権的計画経済モデルと分権モデルとを分かつ境界線は、通常、中央計画を多数の義務的計画指標に分解して企業に下達する指令方式が廃止されるか否か、この指令方式の背骨をなしている生産財の行政的配分制が廃止されるか否か、にあると考えられてきた。この基準からすれば、ユーゴスラビアはもちろんのこと、ハンガリーも早くから境界線を越えていたが、その他の諸国は部分的分権システムないし緩和された集権制の枠内にとどまっていた。その枠内でも義務的指標の数はしだいに削減され、価格的な指標の利用がより比重を増す方向にあったが、後者は依然前者にリンクされていたのが、1980年代末の体制転換までの顕著な特徴であった。これに反しハンガリーでは、1980年代に開始された経済改革の新しい波のなかで、より市場化を強める方向をとり、他方、社会主義的市場経済といわれるユーゴスラビアでは、下からの協議システムと地方分権化の結果としての計画的制御の弱さが、1970年代末から表面化した経済困難のなかで批判の対象となり、最終的には連邦崩壊の一因ともなった。 [佐藤経明] 混合経済システム古典的な計画経済の「一つの工場」イメージは、別のことばでいうと、単一の国有・国営経済に無限に接近するのが社会主義計画経済の完成であるという考え方であったが、1980年代にはハンガリーと中国とを先頭にして、これと逆の方向で経済システムを設計しようとする注目すべき動きが進行した。農家レベルの生産責任制で事実上の小農制に移行し、経済特区・開発区を拠点とする大胆な対外開放政策を採用した中国と、ハンガリーとの間の差異は少なくなかったが、共通するのは、公有制を基本としながらも、国有(公有)企業、協同組合企業、小規模集団有企業、私企業といった多様な所有形態と、所有と経営の分離(たとえば公有企業の入札請負制)による多様な経営形態とを組み合わせ、「社会主義型の混合経済体制」を志向する動きであった。そのなかには経済活性化のためにとられた便宜的な方策もあるが、社会主義計画経済の実行可能なシステムが、こうした混合経済システムに収斂(しゅうれん)しつつあることの意味は大きかった。 混合経済体制化で市場社会主義に接近しつつあった1980年代の流れは、論理をつきつめれば「体制転換」を内包(たとえば私的セクターの大胆な拡大の主張)していたが、直接的には1989年の東欧革命による政治体制の大転換で中断された。ソ連型の社会主義では一党制支配と指令的計画経済とは不可分であったから、前者の崩壊は同時に後者の崩壊となり、「再資本主義化」の過程がとってかわった。しかし、それにかわって現代的な、制度化された資本主義市場経済がただちに生まれるわけではないから、特異で矛盾に満ちた移行期経済の時期が20年近く続いた。中・東欧5か国のEU(ヨーロッパ連合)加盟(2004年5月)は「移行期」終了の一つの重要な里程標である。しかし、形成されつつある中・東欧諸国の資本主義には、伝統的に社会的保障にウェイトを置いた欧州型資本主義からの離反の兆候もみられ、安定した体制転換資本主義を形成したというにはほど遠いものがある。 [佐藤経明] 『M・エルマン著、佐藤経明・中兼和津次訳『社会主義計画経済』(1982・岩波書店)』▽『J・コルナイ著、盛田常夫・門脇延行編・訳『反均衡と不足の経済学』(1983・日本評論社)』▽『J・コルナイ著、盛田常夫編・訳『「不足」の政治経済学』(1984・岩波書店)』▽『J・コルナイ著、盛田常夫編・訳『経済改革の可能性』(1986・岩波書店)』▽『W・ブルス、K・ラスキ共著、佐藤経明・西村可明訳『マルクスから市場へ――経済システムを模索する社会主義』(1995・岩波書店)』▽『西村可明著『社会主義から資本主義へ――ソ連・東欧における市場化政策の展開』(1995・日本評論社)』▽『佐藤経明著『ポスト社会主義の経済体制』(1997・岩波書店)』 [参照項目] | | | | | | |出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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