Economics - Keigaku

Japanese: 経学 - けいがく

Chinese Classical Studies. In China, the study of the classics, or Confucian classics, is the interpretation of the classics. The ultimate goal of the study of classics is to understand the thoughts of ancient sages and wise men, believing that the classics contain them, and it is the basis of Chinese philosophy and literature. The study of ancient languages, known as "shogaku," or more broadly speaking, chinese language studies, is an essential study for the study of classics. Even when approaching the minds of ancient sages, there are traces of changes in the methods and attitudes of the ancients over the ages, and they are commonly called (1) the study of the exegesis of the Han and Tang (Sinology), (2) the study of the principles of the Song and Ming dynasties (Songology), and (3) the study of historical research during the Qing dynasty (Cross-researching). The speculative and deductive learning of the Song and Ming dynasties tended to seek the minds of the ancient sages in one's own heart, rather than reading the scriptures and trying to find them in the scriptures. Therefore, when one speaks of the study of the classics, one is likely to think of (1) Sinology and (3) textual research. The term "study of the classics" already appears in the Former Han dynasty, as in the "Book of Han" (The Book of Han), where it is written, "The Confucian scholars began to study the classics, etc."

[Mitsuo Kondo]

Modern Literature and Ancient Literature - Chinese

After the Qin Dynasty burned books and buried scholars, the Han Dynasty stabilized and the bamboo slips of the Shangshu (Chinese Classics) that Fu Sheng had hidden by plastering them in a wall were taken out and copied in modern writing, i.e., clerical script, which was the common writing at the time. Thus, the classics were gradually copied in modern writing, and Emperor Wu designated Confucianism as the national learning and appointed the Doctor of the Five Classics. Each scholar specialized in one classic and received oral instruction on the interpretation of the classics. The teachings of the master and the family were not allowed to be changed, and the succession of the master was highly valued. Thus, the learning of the Western Han Dynasty was modern literature and official, and included ideas of the relationship between heaven and man and the relationship between yin and yang and disasters, and was strongly political. When Gongsun Hong went to be summoned by Emperor Wu, he was warned by the old scholar Yuan Gu in "Poetry" that "you should not distort your knowledge to please the world." At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, near the first year of the Common Era, Liu Xiang and Liu Xin, father and son, created China's first bibliographic commentary "Xulu" and book classification "Qilue." Liu Xin advocated ancient literature. Ancient literature refers to scriptures written in characters from before the Han Dynasty, such as the Chubun script and the Daiten script, which were found in the walls when King Gong of Lu demolished the former residence of Confucius (Kongqiu) during the reign of Emperor Wu. These classics were passed down among the people. Compared to the modern texts of the classics, there are not only differences in the words, but also differences in interpretation, which led to fierce debates over modern and ancient literature. Xu Shen's "Shuowen Jiezi," completed in 100 AD, is the culmination of the results of exegesis, and the great master Zheng Xuan of the Later Han Dynasty annotated extensively to the Five Classics and the Analects, including the annotations on the lines and the Three Rites of the "Poetry" that still exist today, creating an eclectic mix of modern and ancient literature.

[Mitsuo Kondo]

The Incorporation of Taoist and Zhuangzi Thought: Wei, Jin, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties

Wang Shu, a Wei scholar who is said to have forged the Confucius Family Language, offered different theories on various matters to Zheng Xuan. For example, Zheng Xuan reads the middle month of the Shiyu Ritual as "In the middle month, a ritual to purify one's body is performed" as one month apart, so he believes the three-year mourning period was 27 months, whereas Zheng Xuan reads it as "within the month" as 25 months. Today, the oldest commentary on the Analects is He Yan's Analects of the Wei Dynasty's Jijie, which is said to be a collection of annotations by people at the time, but it is often based on the ideas of Laozi and Zhuangzi, and contains annotations far removed from Confucius's true intentions. Wang Bi's annotations on the Yi Changes, which the Laozi wrote, are also based on the ideas of Laozi and Zhuangzi. After the Jin dynasty moved south, the Wei classics were passed down to the Southern Dynasties, while the ancient literature of the Later Han dynasty remained in the Northern Dynasties. In the "Northern History," the Confucian Scholars' Biography, it is said that "Southern scholars are good at grasping the gist of things, while Northern scholars are good at exploring the details." This is a comment made from the Southern Dynasties' point of view.

[Mitsuo Kondo]

Commentaries on the Six Dynasties and Justice in the Tang Dynasty

The method of discussion used in the Six Dynasties study of Buddhist scriptures was used for the classics, and many commentaries were created as detailed interpretations that were the result of discussions that analyzed and shared the classics and commentaries. One such example is the Commentary on the Analects of Confucius by Huang Kan of Liang, which is kept at the Ashikaga School in Japan. Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty ordered Yan Shigu to create a definitive edition of the Five Classics, and Kong Yingda and others compiled the commentaries into the Five Classics Zhengyi, which they presented to Changsun Wuji in 653 (the 4th year of the Yonghui era during the reign of Emperor Gaozong). It forms the core of the "Commentaries on the Thirteen Classics" which was completed during the Song Dynasty, and Lu Deming's "Commentaries on the Scriptures" was written in the early Tang Dynasty.

[Mitsuo Kondo]

New notes from the Song Dynasty

Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi of the Northern Song dynasty learned the Taoist learning of the two Chengzi, and Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi) of the Southern Song dynasty wrote chapters and verses for "The Great Learning" and "The Doctrine of the Mean," and annotated works for "The Analects" and "Mencius," which are known as "Annotated Commentaries on the Four Books." In "Annotated Commentaries on the Analects," he interprets "Lamentation on the River" as Confucius' understanding of the principles of Taoism, which is a sign of Taoism. This was a new annotation, and the study of the Song and Ming dynasties became the study of the Four Books rather than the Five Classics, and the Ming dynasty's "Complete Encyclopedia of the Five Classics" and "Complete Encyclopedia of the Four Books" were useful for taking the imperial examination. However, Zhu Xi's study of the classics itself, as well as Wang Yinglin's "Records of the Difficult Learning" from the end of the Song dynasty, were also respected by later Qing dynasty scholars.

[Mitsuo Kondo]

Classical Classics of the Qing Dynasty

The Qing Dynasty Classical Studies advocated Sinology because it believed that learning in the Han Dynasty was close to the age of sages and pure without any mixture of Buddhist or elder thought. It rejected the tendency of the latter school of Yangmingism to indulge in empty theory without learning, and combined its profound academic ability, which was due to its extensive reading, with a scientific spirit of empirical inquiry, to cultivate high insight, resulting in a classics study that went beyond Sinology. This is the so-called Qing Dynasty evidential studies. Its essence can be seen in the "Imperially Approved Compendium of the Four Treasuries" and "Explanation to the Classics of the Qing Dynasty."

[Mitsuo Kondo]

"History of Classical Studies" by Pi Xirui with annotations by Zhou Yu (1928, Commercial Press)" ▽ "A Discussion of the History of Chinese Classical Studies" by Honda Shigeyuki (1927, Kobundo)" ▽ "An Outline of the History of Chinese Classical Studies by Takikumanosuke (1934, Taimeido Shoten)" ▽ "Introduction to the Study of Classical Studies" (included in Morohashi Tetsuji Collected Works 2, 1976, Taishukan Shoten)" ▽ "History of Chinese Thought" (included in Takeuchi Yoshio Collected Works 8, 1978, Kadokawa Shoten) ▽ "The Classics of the Chinese and Their Lives" (included in Yoshikawa Kojiro Collected Works 2, 1968, Chikuma Shobo)" ▽ "History of Chinese Philosophy" by Kano Naoki (1953, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "History of Interpretation of Chinese Classics" by Kaga Eiji (1964, Keiso Shobo)

[References] | Chinese Studies | Classical Texts | Textual Studies | Song Studies

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国古典学。中国における経書(けいしょ)すなわち儒家古典の解釈学。経書には古代の聖人・賢人の心が込められていると信じ、それをとらえることを終局の目標とするのが経学であって、中国哲学・中国文学の根底をなす。小学とよばれる古代言語研究、広くいえば中国語学が、経学研究に必須(ひっす)の学としてある。古聖賢の心に迫るにしても、その方法ないし態度には歴代変遷の跡がみられ、普通に(1)漢唐訓詁(かんとうくんこ)の学（漢学）、(2)宋明(そうみん)性理の学（宋学）、(3)清朝(しんちょう)考証の学（考証学）などとよばれる。思弁的・演繹(えんえき)的である宋明の学は、経(けい)を読み経のなかに古聖賢の心を探ろうとするよりも、己が心に古聖賢の心をみいだそうとさえする傾向があるところから、経学といえば、とかく(1)の漢学と(3)の考証学とが想起されがちである。なお「経学」の語は、『漢書(かんじょ)』儒林(じゅりん)伝に、漢の世になって「諸儒始めて其(そ)の経学を修むることを得、云云」というなど、すでに前漢にみえる。

［近藤光男］

今文学と古文学――漢

秦(しん)の焚書坑儒(ふんしょこうじゅ)のあと漢の天下が安定すると、伏生(ふくせい)が壁に塗り込めて隠した『尚書(しょうしょ)』の竹簡(ちくかん)が取り出され、今文(きんぶん)すなわち当時通用の文字であった隷書(れいしょ)で書き写されたというように、経書がしだいに今文に写定され、武帝は儒学を国学と定め、五経(ごきょう)博士をたてた。一経を専門として訓詁(くんこ)が口授(くじゅ)され、師法・家法といって師説の改易は許されず、学問の師承（だれから学を受けたか）が重んぜられた。かくて前漢の学は今文学で官学であり、天人相関や陰陽災異の思想を含み、政治性が強かった。武帝の召しに赴く公孫弘(こうそんこう)は、「学を曲げて以(もっ)て世に阿(おもね)ることなかれ」と『詩』の老学者轅固(えんこ)に戒められている。前漢末、紀元元年に近いころ、中国最初の書目解題「叙録」や図書分類「七略」をつくった劉向(りゅうきょう)・劉歆(りゅうきん)父子の、劉歆は古文学を提唱した。古文(こぶん)とは、先に武帝のとき魯(ろ)の恭(きょう)王が孔子（孔丘(こうきゅう)）の旧宅を壊すと、壁中から『尚書』や『論語』などが出て、みな古文であったというように、漢以前の文字である籀文(ちゅうぶん)や大篆(だいてん)などのことで、古文とよばれる文字で書かれた経書が、民間に伝承されていた。今文の経書と比べると字句に異同があるのはもとより、解釈上の相違もあって、今古文学の論争が激しかった。紀元100年に完成した許慎(きょしん)の『説文(せつもん)解字』は、訓詁学の成果の結集であり、後漢(ごかん)の巨匠鄭玄(じょうげん)が、今日も存する『詩』の箋(せん)や三礼の注をはじめ五経・『論語』にあまねく注し、今古文学を折衷した。

［近藤光男］

老荘思想の混入――魏晋南北朝

魏(ぎ)の学者で『孔子家語(けご)』を偽作したといわれる王粛(おうしゅく)は、事ごとに鄭玄に対して異説をたてた。たとえば、3年の喪の期間は、『儀礼(ぎらい)』士虞礼(しぐれい)の「中月にして禫(たん)（除服の祀(まつ)り）す」の中月をひと月置いてと読む鄭玄が27か月とするのに対して、その月のうちにと読んで25か月とするなど。今日『論語』の古注といえば魏の何晏(かあん)の『論語集解(しっかい)』であり、「集解」すなわち当時の人々の注を集めたものというが、往々にして老荘思想をもって注し、孔子の真意とはほど遠い解を含む。『老子』に注した王弼(おうひつ)の『易』注も老荘思想に基づく。晋(しん)の南渡ののち、魏の経学は南朝に受け継がれ、北朝に後漢の古文学が残った。『北史』儒林伝に「南人(なんじん)は約簡(やくかん)にして其(そ)の英華(えいか)を得、北学(ほくがく)は深蕪(しんぶ)にして其の枝葉を窮(きわ)む」（南人の学は大要をつかむのがうまい。北学は末端まで窮め尽くさねばやまぬ）というのは、南朝の立場からの評である。

［近藤光男］

六朝の義疏と唐の正義

六朝(りくちょう)で仏経(ぶっきょう)研究の論議の方法が経書(けいしょ)に用いられ、「経」「注」を分析し疏通(そつう)しての討論の結果できた精細な解釈である義疏(ぎそ)が多く生まれた。わが国足利(あしかが)学校に存する梁(りょう)の皇侃(おうがん)の『論語義疏』などその一つである。唐の太宗(たいそう)は顔師古(がんしこ)に命じて五経(ごきょう)の定本をつくらせ、孔穎達(くようだつ)らは義疏を整理して『五経正義』をまとめ、653年（高宗の永徽4）長孫無忌(ちょうそんむき)の上表で奉っている。宋にかけて完結する『十三経注疏』の核心をなし、初唐に陸徳明の『経典釈文(けいてんしゃくもん)』ができている。

［近藤光男］

宋の新注

北宋(ほくそう)の程顥(ていこう)・程頤(ていい)、二程子の道学を受け、南宋に朱熹(しゅき)（朱子）が「大学」「中庸(ちゅうよう)」に章句を、『論語』『孟子(もうし)』に集注を、いわゆる『四書集注』をつくる。『論語集注』で「川上の嘆」を孔子が道体の理を悟ったものと解くなど、道学の面目である。これが新注で、宋明の学は五経よりも四書の学となり、明の『五経大全』『四書大全』は科挙(かきょ)受験の便益であった。しかし朱熹の経学そのものはもとより、宋末の王応麟(おうおうりん)の『困学紀聞(こんがくきぶん)』など、後の清朝の学者たちからも敬意を集める。

［近藤光男］

清朝経学

清朝経学が漢学を標榜(ひょうぼう)するのは、漢代の学は聖人の世に近く、仏老思想の混入もなく純であると考えてであって、陽明学の末流の無学で空論にふける傾向を排し、広範な読書による博学のゆえにこそ深淵(しんえん)である学力に、科学の実証精神をあわせて培われた高い見識をもって、漢学を超えた経学として、乾嘉(けんか)の学が結実した。いわゆる清朝考証学である。『欽定四庫(きんていしこ)全書総目』および『皇清経解(こうせいけいかい)』について、その核心をうかがうことができる。

［近藤光男］

『皮錫瑞著、周予同注『経学歴史』（1928・商務印書館）』▽『本田成之著『支那経学史論』（1927・弘文堂）』▽『滝熊之助著『支那経学史概説』（1934・大明堂書店）』▽『「経学研究序説」（『諸橋轍次著作集2』所収・1976・大修館書店）』▽『「中国思想史」（『武内義雄全集8』所収・1978・角川書店）』▽『「支那人の古典とその生活」（『吉川幸次郎全集2』所収・1968・筑摩書房）』▽『狩野直喜著『中国哲学史』（1953・岩波書店）』▽『加賀栄治著『中国古典解釈史』（1964・勁草書房）』