Finance - Finance (English)

Japanese: 金融 - きんゆう(英語表記)finance 英語
Finance - Finance (English)

Finance refers to the adjustment of demand and supply of funds in financial markets.

Financial System

The financial system is a system that determines how funds flow from sectors with surplus funds to sectors with deficit funds.

For most individual households, over a certain period of time, consumption is smaller than income, so they act by increasing savings to compensate. However, some households are faced with a shortage of funds because they have to take out mortgages to cover housing investments. In reality, there are many different types of individual households, but when they are totaled up, they end up in a sector with a surplus of funds, in other words, a sector with excess savings, in which consumption expenditure is smaller than income.

Looking next at the corporate sector, there are companies that have more real investment (inventory investment, capital investment) than the retained profits they hold on hand through their business activities, and there are companies that have less. When the economy is on the rise and sales are growing and profits are high, companies will also make larger capital investments to expand production, so that investment exceeds retained profits and they will have to borrow to cover that amount. Also, among large companies, there are some that have huge retained profits and have surplus funds even after active real investment, meaning that they have a savings surplus. In other words, among companies, there are those that have a high degree of self-financing, covering real investment at the time with their own retained profits. However, looking at the corporate sector as a whole, it is a sector with an excess of investment that is in a state of capital shortage.

The above is about the flow of funds in the private sector, such as households and companies, but the public sector also plays an important role in the flow of funds. The public sector includes the central government (national finances), government-related agencies, and local governments (local finances), and they each issue bonds such as national bonds, agency bonds, and local government bonds to raise funds to cover shortfalls that arise in the provision of administrative services and the activities of public enterprises.

From a macro perspective, the type of financial transactions that each sector performed in a certain period of time are estimated and shown in a single account, which is called the "flow of funds account," and in Japan, the Bank of Japan creates it. Currently, it can be viewed on the Bank of Japan's website, and a guidebook has been published (Bank of Japan Research and Statistics Department, Economic Statistics Division, "Introduction to the Flow of Funds: How to Use Statistics and Japan's Financial Structure" (2001, Toyo Keizai Inc.)). Basically, the personal sector (household sector plus individual businesses) has a surplus of funds, while the corporate sector (corporate sector minus individual businesses) and the public sector (central government, government-related agencies, and local governments) have a shortage of funds. If the financial sector and overseas sectors are not included in the surplus and shortage of funds, the surplus and shortage of funds do not strictly match, but in any case, if we look only at the domestic economic sector, we can say that the financial system plays a role in mediating the flow of funds from the personal sector to the corporate sector and the public sector. During Japan's period of high economic growth, the corporate sector was the main sector with a capital deficit, but from the 1970s onwards, the public sector, particularly the central government, became the main sector with a capital deficit. Since the Heisei era, there has been no fundamental change in the fact that the individual sector is the sector with a capital surplus, but the corporate sector's capital deficit has shown a tendency to improve, while the public sector's capital deficit has become more serious.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Direct and indirect finance

So far, we have explained the nature of the financial system through the excess or shortage of funds in each of the domestic economic sectors, but in reality, funds also flow into the financial system from the corporate and public sectors, and the individual sector also borrows funds in the form of consumer loans and housing loans. Furthermore, funds flow into the country from the overseas sector in the form of investments in domestic securities, and conversely, funds flow out to overseas countries through investments in foreign securities by Japanese residents.

In this way, the funds supplied to and demanded by the financial system are becoming more diverse, but some mechanism is needed to effectively allocate the limited funds. In this case, in order to allocate funds most efficiently in the financial system, it is desirable for there to be effective competition between lenders (suppliers) and borrowers (demanders) over the price (interest rate) of funds. For this to happen, it is necessary to establish a market mechanism between lenders and borrowers, and to allow competition to take place there. The higher the interest rate, the more likely lenders will increase their supply of funds, while the lower the interest rate, the more likely borrowers will increase their demand for funds. At the interest rate level at which the two are in equilibrium, the supply and demand of funds will match. In other words, efficiency in the allocation of funds can be achieved in the sense that funds can be allocated sequentially from among many borrowers, starting with the most efficient one.

However, in the financial market, it cannot be said that there are always conditions for borrowers and lenders to negotiate directly and meet their respective demands. The amount of funds supplied by lenders and the amount of funds required by borrowers, as well as the period of lending and borrowing, are different. In addition, there is a gap in information between borrowers and lenders (information asymmetry). In such a situation, it is a basic premise that lenders can trust borrowers. Therefore, in order to cover such imperfections in the market, financial institutions act as intermediaries between the two parties. In other words, lenders' funds are first collected in a huge tank of financial institutions, where they are standardized and then indirectly provided to borrowers. In this case, financial institutions not only mediate credit, but also adjust the amount of funds and the period of lending and borrowing. In some cases, financial institutions acting as intermediaries in this way can actually make the flow of funds more efficient. In particular, in Japan, the proportion of public financial intermediation, such as government-affiliated financial institutions, was high, and during periods of high demand for funds, such as the period of high economic growth, public financial intermediation complemented private financial intermediation and contributed to efficient allocation of funds.

Direct finance is a method whereby funds are supplied directly from lenders to borrowers through financial markets, while indirect finance is a method whereby financial institutions are used as intermediaries. However, indirect finance also includes financial institutions going to the market to purchase bonds and stocks, so the distinction between market institutions and financial institutions does not necessarily coincide with the distinction between direct and indirect finance. In the Japanese financial system, the proportion of indirect finance has been very high, but recently the proportion of direct finance has been gradually increasing. Traditionally, direct finance has been seen as "direct finance = securities and insurance, indirect finance = banks," but the financial system reform policy being implemented in Japan in recent years is moving toward removing the business barriers between banks and securities. In fact, in academia, indirect finance that uses market-based transactions, such as investment trusts and securitized products, is now called "market-based indirect finance" to distinguish it from traditional indirect finance.

Another extremely important function of financial institutions is the supply of currency in the financial system. Currency consists of cash currency supplied by central banks, deposit currency (demand deposits) and quasi-currency (savings deposits) supplied by commercial banks. Because central banks and commercial banks create new currency and supply it to the financial system, the financial sector as a whole has a surplus of funds, and in recent years, the zero interest rate policy and sluggish demand for funds have combined to make the financial sector a large excess of savings, just like the personal sector. Financial institutions include central banks, private financial institutions (deposit-taking financial institutions such as banks, non-deposit-taking financial institutions such as securities companies and insurance companies), and public financial institutions, forming a single system. Japan's current financial system consists of (1) ordinary banks as deposit-taking financial institutions, as well as specialized financial institutions (trust banks, shinkin banks, credit associations, The Norinchukin Bank, etc.) in three areas (long-term financial institutions, cooperative financial institutions, and central agencies of cooperative financial institutions), (2) other financial institutions such as securities, insurance, and credit companies, and (3) public financial institutions (Japan Finance Corporation, Development Bank of Japan, Shoko Chukin Bank, etc.) which serve to complement these private financial institutions.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

Accumulation of financial assets

So far, we have mainly explained the mechanism of the financial system with a focus on the flow of funds. However, since financial transactions are borrowing and lending, financial assets flow in the opposite direction to the flow of funds. The borrower, who is the demander of funds, is also the debtor, and issues securities or IOUs to raise funds. The lender, who is the supplier of funds, is also the creditor, and purchases financial assets to manage the funds. Then, financial assets and financial liabilities remain in the financial system until the financial transaction is settled. For example, if an individual purchases a government bond, the individual will have the financial asset of the government bond until the bond matures and is redeemed, and conversely, the government will have the financial liability of the outstanding government bond. Also, when an individual's savings are deposited in a bank and the bank uses the funds to purchase a government bond, the individual will have an indirect financial asset in the form of a deposit (the bank has an indirect financial liability in the form of a deposit), and the bank will have a direct financial asset in the form of a government bond (the government has a direct financial liability in the form of a government bond). In this way, indirect finance generates twice as many financial assets as direct finance. In this way, the flow of funds brings about the accumulation (stock) of financial assets in the financial system.

Financial assets are currency and claims against currency, and therefore they are substitutable for currency. As financial asset balances accumulate, the number of financial assets that can be substituted for currency increases. Incidentally, personal financial assets amounted to approximately 1,390 trillion yen as of the end of March 2008. As financial assets in Japan continue to deepen, the financial environment surrounding them has also undergone major changes, such as the introduction of electronic payments due to the spread of IT (information technology) and the globalization of financial transactions. While the main task of monetary policy is to control the amount of currency, it is also important to pay attention to the fact that the accumulation of financial assets that are easily converted into currency will place greater constraints on the management of monetary policy.

[Shiro Hara and Osamu Kitai]

"Money and Finance" revised translation by J.G. Gurley and E.S. Shaw, translated by Sakurai Kinichiro (1967, Shiseido)""Modern Economics 6: Finance" by Tate Ryuichiro and Hamada Koichi (1972, Iwanami Shoten)""Japan's Financial System" by Royama Shoichi (1982, Toyo Keizai Shinposha)""Hitotsubashi University Economic Research Series Special Edition: Japan's Economic Development and Finance" by Teranishi Shigeo (1982, Iwanami Shoten)""Japanese Finance I: A New Perspective" edited by Tate Ryuichiro and Royama Shoichi (1987, University of Tokyo Press)""Financial Theory" by Horiuchi Akiyoshi (1990, University of Tokyo Press)""The Historical Structure of Japanese-Style Finance" by Ito Osamu (1995, University of Tokyo Press)""Financial Systems and Information Theory" by Yabushita Shiro (1995, University of Tokyo Press)""Japanese Finance and Market Mechanisms" by Shimizu Hironori (1997, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Modern Economic Research Series 15: Economic Analysis of Fiscal Investment and Loan" edited by Iwata Kazumasa and Fukao Mitsuhiro (1998, Nihon Keizai Shimbun)" ▽ "Japanese Financial Asset Selection: The Experience of the Bubble and the Impact of the Big Bang" edited by Muramoto Tsutomu (1998, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Finance" by Iwata Kikuo (2000, Toyo Keizai Inc.)"Introduction to Japanese Financial Institutions" by Takagi Jin and Takatsuki Akito (2000, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""The Cutting Edge of Financial Analysis" edited by Tsutsui Yoshiro (2000, Toyo Keizai Inc.)"Progressive Economics Series" by Tsutsui Yoshiro "Financial Analysis of Japan by Shozaburo Fujino and Shigeo Teranishi ( 2000, Toyo Keizai)" ▽ "Introduction to Finance by Yuzo Honda (2000, Yuhikaku)" ▽ " The Economics of Financial Functions and Regulation by Yasushi Iwamoto, Makoto Saito, Yasuo Maeda and Tsutomu Watanabe (2001, Toyo Keizai)""Introduction to Fund Flows: How to Use Statistics and Japan's Financial Structure by Economic Statistics Division, Research and Statistics Department, Bank of Japan (2001, Toyo Keizai)""Towards the Revitalization of the Financial System: Lectures on Banking by Central Bankers, edited by the Bank of Japan Banking Research Group (2001, Yuhikaku)""Postwar Japan's Fund Allocation: Industrial Policy and Private Banks" by Okazaki Tetsuji, Okuno Masahiro, Ueda Kazuo, Ishii Susumu, and Hori Nobuaki (2002, University of Tokyo Press)""Furukawa Tsuyoshi, Textbook: Modern Finance, 2nd Edition (2002, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Bank of Japan Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies, ed., The New Bank of Japan: Its Functions and Operations, Expanded Edition (2004, Yuhikaku)""Kano Yoshiaki, Japan's Financial System, 2nd Edition (2006, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Ikeo Kazuto and the Ministry of Finance Policy Research Institute, eds., Economic Analysis of Market-Based Indirect Finance (2006, Nippon Hyoronsha)""Sui Qingyuan, Bank-Centered Financial System: An Examination of Bank Behavior Since the Bubble Period" (2008, Toyo Keizai Inc.)""Shirakawa Masaaki, Modern Monetary Policy: Theory and Practice" (2008, Nihon Keizai Shimbun Publishing Inc.)""An Introduction to Modern Finance" by Kazuto Ikeo (Chikuma Shinsho)

[Reference] | Indirect finance | Financial institutions | Financial structure | Financial markets | Monetary policy | Financial system reform-related laws | Direct finance
Funding surplus/deficit in various domestic economic sectors
©Shogakukan ">

Financial surplus/deficit in various domestic economic sectors

Direct and indirect finance
©Shogakukan ">

Direct and indirect finance

Flow of financial assets
©Shogakukan ">

Flow of financial assets


Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

金融とは金融市場における資金の需要と供給の調整をいう。

金融システム

金融システムは、資金余剰部門から、いかにして資金不足部門へと資金を流していくかということに関する一つのシステムである。

 大部分の個人家計は、一定期間をとると、所得よりも消費のほうが小さいから、その分だけ貯蓄を増加させるという行動をとる。しかし、なかには住宅投資をまかなうために住宅ローンを借り入れなくてはならない、つまり資金不足に直面する家計もある。このように種々のタイプの個人家計が現実にはあるが、それを集計すると、結局、所得より消費支出のほうが小さい資金余剰部門、つまり、貯蓄超過部門となる。

 次に企業部門をみると、企業の経営活動を通じて手元に保有する留保利益と比較して、実物投資(在庫投資、設備投資)のほうが多い企業と少ない企業とがある。景気が上昇局面にあり、売上高が伸びて利益の大きいときの企業は、生産規模を拡大するための設備投資も大きくなるため、投資が留保利益を上回ることとなり、その分だけ借り入れなければならない。また、巨大企業のなかには、莫大(ばくだい)な留保利益をあげていて、活発な実物投資をしてもなお資金に余剰が生まれる、貯蓄超過の企業も存在している。つまり、企業のなかには社内の留保利益でそのときの実物投資をまかなう、いわゆる自己金融力の高いものもある。しかし、企業部門全体でみれば、資金不足の状態にある、投資超過部門ということになる。

 以上は家計や企業のような民間部門の資金循環であるが、公共部門も資金循環において重要な役割を演じている。公共部門には中央政府(国家財政)、政府関係機関、地方公共団体(地方財政)が含まれるが、それぞれ国債、機関債、地方債といった債券を発行するなどして、行政サービスの提供や公企業活動において生ずる不足分の資金を調達している。

 マクロ的に、それぞれの部門がどのような金融取引を、ある一定期間において行ったかを推計して、一つの勘定で示したものを「資金循環表」flow of funds accountとよび、日本では日本銀行がこれを作成している。現在ではそれを日本銀行のホームページで閲覧することができるほか、その解説書が公刊されている(日本銀行調査統計局経済統計課著『入門 資金循環――統計の利用法と日本の金融構造』(2001・東洋経済新報社))。基本的には個人部門(家計部門に個人企業分を加えたもの)は資金余剰となっており、法人企業部門(企業部門から個人企業分を差し引いたもの)や公共部門(中央政府と政府関係機関および地方公共団体)は資金不足となっている。このほかに金融部門や海外部門の資金過不足を加えないと、厳密に資金余剰分と資金不足分は一致しないが、ともあれ、国内経済部門だけをみれば、個人部門から法人企業部門や公共部門への資金の流れを媒介する役割を、金融システムが果たしているといえる。日本の高度成長期においては法人企業部門が主要な資金不足部門であったが、昭和50年代に入ってからは、公共部門とくに中央政府が主要な資金不足部門となった。平成以降では、個人部門が資金余剰部門であることに基本的に変わりはないが、法人企業部門の資金不足は改善の傾向がみられ、反対に公共部門の資金不足は深刻化の度合いを増している。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

直接金融と間接金融

以上、国内各経済部門の資金の過不足を通じて金融システムの性格を説明してきたが、現実には法人企業部門や公共部門からも金融システムに資金が流入してくるし、個人部門も消費者ローンや住宅ローンの形で資金を借り入れる。さらに、海外部門から国内の証券への投資という形などをとって資金が国内に流入してくるし、反対に日本の国内居住者による外国の証券への投資などを通じて海外に資金が流出する。

 このように金融システムに供給される資金も需要される資金も多様化してきているが、限られた資金をなんらかの仕組みで有効に配分することが必要となる。その場合、金融システムにおいて、もっとも効率的に資金配分を行うためには、貸し手(供給者)と借り手(需要者)との間に資金の価格(金利)をめぐって有効な競争が行われることが望ましいといえる。そのためには、貸し手と借り手との間に市場機構を設けて、そこで競争が展開されることが必要となる。貸し手は、金利が高くなればなるほど資金の供給量を増加させるであろうし、一方、借り手は、金利が低くなればなるほど資金の需要量を増加させるであろう。そして、両者の均衡する水準の金利で、資金の供給量と資金の需要量が一致する。つまり、多くの借り手のなかで、もっとも効率性の高いものから順次資金の配分を受けることができるという意味で、資金配分の効率性を発揮することができる。

 しかし、金融市場ではつねに直接、借り手と貸し手が交渉し、それぞれの需要を満たす条件があるとはいえない。貸し手の供給する資金と借り手の需要する資金の規模、両者の貸借する期間が異なっているし、また、現実に借り手と貸し手の間には情報の格差(情報の非対称性)が認められ、そのような状況下で貸し手が借り手を信用できるということが大前提となるからである。そこで、このような市場における不完全性をカバーする意味で、金融機関が両者を仲介する方法がとられる。つまり、一度貸し手の資金は巨大なタンクである金融機関に集められ、そこで標準化されたうえで、間接的に借り手に供与されることになる。この場合、金融機関は信用を仲介するだけでなく、資金の規模、貸借の期間の調整を行う。そして、このように金融機関が仲介したほうが、かえって資金の流れを効率的に行うことが可能となる場合が出てくる。とくに、日本では後述する政府系金融機関などの公的金融仲介の比重が高く、高度成長期など資金需要が旺盛(おうせい)であった局面において公的金融仲介は、民間の金融仲介を補完し、効率的な資金配分に寄与した。

 金融市場を通して直接、貸し手から借り手に資金が供給される方式を直接金融direct finance、金融機関を仲介とする方式を間接金融indirect financeという。ただし、金融機関が市場へ出向いて債券や株式を購入することによって資金を運用するのも間接金融のなかに入れることから、市場機構を通ずるものと金融機関を通ずるものとの区別と、直接金融と間接金融の区別はかならずしも一致しない。日本の金融システムにおいては、間接金融の比重が非常に高いのがこれまでの特徴であったが、最近は徐々に直接金融の比重が高くなってきている。なお、伝統的に「直接金融=証券・保険、間接金融=銀行」という図式でとらえられるが、近年進められている日本の金融制度改革政策によって、銀行と証券の業務障壁は取り除かれる方向にある。実際、学界では従来型の間接金融と区別して、投資信託や証券化商品など、市場型の取引を用いた間接金融を「市場型間接金融」とよぶようになっている。

 次に金融機関のきわめて重要な機能として、金融システムにおける通貨の供給をあげることができる。通貨には、中央銀行が供給する現金通貨と、商業銀行が供給する預金通貨(要求払預金)、準通貨(貯蓄性預金)とがある。中央銀行と商業銀行は通貨を新たに創造して金融システムに供給しているから、金融部門全体としてみると資金余剰であり、とりわけ、近年はゼロ金利政策と資金需要の低迷という状況も重なり、個人部門と同様の大幅な貯蓄超過主体ということになる。また、金融機関のなかには、中央銀行、民間金融機関(銀行などの預金取扱い金融機関、証券会社や保険会社などの非預金取扱い金融機関)、公的金融機関などが含まれていて、一つの制度としての体系をなしている。日本の金融組織は現在、(1)預金取扱い金融機関としての普通銀行に加え、三つの分野(長期金融機関、協同組織金融機関、協同組織金融機関の中央機関)にそれぞれ専門金融機関(信託銀行、信用金庫・信用組合、農林中央金庫など)が置かれ、(2)その他の金融機関として、証券・保険・信用会社があり、(3)さらにそれらの民間金融機関を補完する目的をもつ公的金融機関(日本政策金融公庫、日本政策投資銀行、商工組合中央金庫など)から構成されている。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

金融資産の蓄積

以上、金融システムの仕組みを主として資金の流れに中心を置いて説明してきた。しかし、金融取引が貸借であることから、資金の流れとは反対に金融資産が流れることとなる。資金の需要者である借り手は債務者でもあり、資金を調達するために証券または借用証書を発行する。資金の供給者である貸し手は債権者でもあり、資金を運用するためにその金融資産を購入する。そして、金融取引が決済されるまでの間、金融資産、金融負債が金融システムに残るのである。たとえば、個人が国債を購入すれば、個人は国債の満期がきて償還されるまで国債という金融資産をもつこととなるし、反対に政府は国債発行残高だけの金融負債をもつこととなる。また、個人の貯蓄が一度銀行に預金され、銀行がその資金で国債を購入すると、個人には預金という間接金融資産(銀行には預金という間接金融負債)が、銀行には国債という直接金融資産(政府には国債という直接金融負債)が保有される。こうして間接金融は直接金融に比較して2倍の金融資産を生み出すこととなる。このようにフローとしての資金の流れは、金融システムに金融資産の蓄積(ストック)をもたらすのである。

 金融資産は貨幣および貨幣に対する請求権を意味するのであるから、それは貨幣との間に代替性をもっている。金融資産残高が蓄積すると、貨幣と代替される金融資産が増加することになる。ちなみに、2008年(平成20)3月末時点の個人金融資産は約1390兆円を数える。日本の金融資産の深化が進み、また、IT(情報技術)の普及に伴う電子決済の導入、金融取引のグローバル化など、それらを取り囲む金融環境も大きな変化を遂げている。金融政策は貨幣量をコントロールすることを主要な課題としているが、容易に貨幣に転換する金融資産が蓄積することによって金融政策の運営に対する制約が大きくなることにも、関心を寄せる必要がある。

[原 司郎・北井 修]

『J・G・ガーレイ、E・S・ショウ著、桜井欣一郎訳『貨幣と金融』改訳版(1967・至誠堂)』『館龍一郎・浜田宏一著『現代経済学6 金融』(1972・岩波書店)』『蝋山昌一著『日本の金融システム』(1982・東洋経済新報社)』『寺西重郎著『一橋大学経済研究叢書 別冊 日本の経済発展と金融』(1982・岩波書店)』『館龍一郎・蝋山昌一編『日本の金融 Ⅰ 新しい見方』(1987・東京大学出版会)』『堀内昭義著『金融論』(1990・東京大学出版会)』『伊藤修著『日本型金融の歴史的構造』(1995・東京大学出版会)』『藪下史郎著『金融システムと情報の理論』(1995・東京大学出版会)』『清水啓典著『日本の金融と市場メカニズム』(1997・東洋経済新報社)』『岩田一政・深尾光洋編『シリーズ・現代経済研究15 財政投融資の経済分析』(1998・日本経済新聞社)』『村本孜編著『日本人の金融資産選択――バブルの経験とビッグバンの影響』(1998・東洋経済新報社)』『岩田規久男著『金融』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『高木仁・高月昭年著『入門 日本の金融機関』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『筒井義郎編『金融分析の最先端』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『筒井義郎著『プログレッシブ経済学シリーズ 金融』(2001・東洋経済新報社)』『藤野正三郎・寺西重郎著『日本金融の数量分析』(2000・東洋経済新報社)』『本多佑三著『はじめての金融』(2000・有斐閣)』『岩本康志・齊藤誠・前多康男・渡辺努著『金融機能と規制の経済学』(2001・東洋経済新報社)』『日本銀行調査統計局経済統計課著『入門 資金循環――統計の利用法と日本の金融構造』(2001・東洋経済新報社)』『日本銀行銀行論研究会編『金融システムの再生にむけて――中央銀行員によるレクチャー銀行論』(2001・有斐閣)』『岡崎哲二・奥野正寛・植田和男・石井晋・堀宣昭著『戦後日本の資金配分――産業政策と民間銀行』(2002・東京大学出版会)』『古川顕著『テキストブック 現代の金融』第2版(2002・東洋経済新報社)』『日本銀行金融研究所編『新しい日本銀行――その機能と業務』増補版(2004・有斐閣)』『鹿野嘉昭著『日本の金融制度』第2版(2006・東洋経済新報社)』『池尾和人・財務省財務総合政策研究所編著『市場型間接金融の経済分析』(2006・日本評論社)』『随清遠著『銀行中心型金融システム――バブル期以降の銀行行動の検証』(2008・東洋経済新報社)』『白川方明著『現代の金融政策――理論と実際』(2008・日本経済新聞出版社)』『池尾和人著『現代の金融入門』(ちくま新書)』

[参照項目] | 間接金融 | 金融機関 | 金融構造 | 金融市場 | 金融政策 | 金融制度改革関連法 | 直接金融
国内各経済部門の資金過不足
©Shogakukan">

国内各経済部門の資金過不足

直接金融と間接金融
©Shogakukan">

直接金融と間接金融

金融資産の流れ
©Shogakukan">

金融資産の流れ


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