Temperament

Japanese: 気質 - きしつ(英語表記)temperament
Temperament
It is a term that indicates the genetic and biological aspects that underlie personality, and is distinct from "character," which indicates the acquired aspects acquired through interaction with the environment. In the narrow sense, it refers to the emotional characteristics that result from an individual's constitution, as well as the strength of sensitivity, adaptability, or speed of reaction to environmental stimuli.

[Temperament theory] The idea of ​​explaining individual differences in human behavior by relating them to individual differences in physical functions dates back to ancient Greece. Hippocrates and Galen's four humoralism is the oldest temperament theory, and it posits that temperament is determined by the amount of each of the bodily humors that make up a person's body: blood, mucus, yellow bile, and black bile. Although this four humoral theory has been scientifically disproved, the idea of ​​categorizing the diverse personalities seen in human behavior and explaining them by physical and physiological characteristics has been inherited by various temperament theories since the 20th century. In the 20th century, the German psychiatrist Kretschmer, E. (1955) came up with a theory that classifies the temperament of ordinary adults into three temperament types (schizoid, manic-depressive, and obsessive) based on the relationship between the behavioral characteristics and body types of patients with schizophrenia and manic-depressive illness. Kretschmer considered character and temperament to be two aspects of personality, and that character is the willful aspect of personality that is formed later in life, while temperament represents the emotional aspect and is formed innately. This definition of temperament has been inherited by the personality theories of GW Allport and RB Cattell.

Furthermore, Russian physiologist Pavlov, I. (1927) defined temperament as an individual neurophysiological difference in excitation and inhibition based on the behavioral observations of dogs in conditioning experiments. Pavlov's physiological temperament theory was inherited by Eysenck, H. J. (1967)'s personality theory. Of the three trait dimensions of personality proposed by Eysenck, the extraversion-introversion dimension is determined by individual differences in the ascending reticular activating system (ARAS), which is related to excitation and inhibition of the cerebral cortex. The trait dimension of neuroticism is also related to individual differences in the arousal level of the autonomic nervous system, and although he does not directly use the term temperament, Eysenck's personality theory is strongly colored by temperament theory. Gray, JA (1987), who developed Eysenck's theory, hypothesized three brain systems derived from animal experiments: the behavioral activation system (BAS), the behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and the fight-flight system (FFS), and developed a detailed neuroscientific temperament theory. Cloninger, CR (1997)'s personality theory also assumes four temperament factors (novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence) that are associated with neurotransmitters in the brain. Novelty seeking is said to be associated with dopamine, harm avoidance with serotonin, and reward dependence and persistence with noradrenaline, respectively. Molecular biological studies have also been conducted on the relationship between gene polymorphisms related to these brain substances and behavioral characteristics. All of the above studies are temperament studies targeting adults.

[Temperament in developmental psychology] In the field of developmental psychology, since the 1970s, attention has been drawn to the fact that there are large individual differences in the emotions and behavior of children during the early stages of development, and temperament research has begun. Pediatrician Brazelton, TB (1998) developed the neonatal behavioral assessment scale (NBAS), which makes it possible to measure individual differences in characteristics such as habituation to unpleasant stimuli, orienting responses to people and objects, arousal levels, crying and sedation, and motor control in newborns just a few days after birth. Thomas, A. and Chess, S. (1986) defined temperament as "a child's phenomenal behavioral style that has an innate basis, appears shortly after birth, and is changeable due to environmental influences." They proposed a temperament theory based on nine trait dimensions derived from long-term follow-up studies of infants (activity level, approach/withdrawal, rhythmicity, adaptability, response threshold, response intensity, mood, distractibility, attention span/persistence) and three temperament types (difficult child, easy child, slow-to warm-up child). Rothbart, M. (2011) et al. inherited the adult temperament theory originating from Pavlov and defined children's temperament as "individual differences with biological basis in reactivity and self-regulation" and developed a scale to measure three factors (surgency, negative affectivity, orienting/regulation in infancy, and effortful control in toddlers and children). In the 21st century, the long tradition of adult temperament research has been integrated with developmental psychology research on children's temperament (Molfese, VJ, Molfese, DL, 2000), and the construction of a lifespan temperament theory has been sought.

[Temperament and Adaptation] Temperament affects an individual's adaptation depending on the goodness of fit with the environment. From the perspective of temperament theory, for example, attachment is formed by the accumulation of interactions between the infant's own temperamental characteristics, such as reactivity and tolerance to stress, fearfulness, and sedation (ease of being soothed), and the caregiver's responsiveness to the infant, and if the fit is good, a stable attachment is formed, but if it is poor, it becomes unstable. Similarly, problem behaviors and mental disorders in childhood and beyond are thought to emerge as a result of temperamental characteristics such as shyness and effortful control interacting with a stressful environment for a long period of time (Rothbart, 2011). →Personality →Personality development →Typology [Masahiro Sakamoto and Masumi Sugawara]

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Japanese:
パーソナリティの基盤にある遺伝的・生物的な側面を示す用語であり,環境との相互作用によって獲得された後天的な側面を示す「性格」と区別される。狭義には,個人の体質に起因する情緒的特性や環境刺激に対する感受性の強さ,順応性,あるいは反応の速さを意味する。

【気質理論】 人間の行動に見られる個人差を,身体的機能の個人差と関連づけて説明しようとする構想は,古代ギリシア時代にさかのぼる。ヒポクラテスHippocratesとガレノスGalēnosの4体液説four humoralism(humorism)は最も古い気質理論であり,人間を構成する血液,粘液,黄胆汁,黒胆汁のそれぞれの体液の多寡で気質が決まるとした。この4体液説は科学的に否定されているが,人の行動に見られる多様な個性を類型化し,身体的・生理学的特徴によって説明しようとした構想は,20世紀以降のさまざまな気質理論に継承されている。20世紀に至るとドイツの精神医学者クレッチマーKretschmer,E.(1955)の精神分裂病(統合失調症)と躁うつ病患者の行動特徴と体型との関連を基礎にして,一般の成人の気質を三つの気質類型(分裂気質・躁うつ気質・粘着気質)に分類した理論が現われる。クレッチマーは,性格と気質をパーソナリティの二つの側面とみなし,性格はパーソナリティの意志的側面で後天的に形成される一方,気質は情動的側面を表わし先天的に形成されるものとした。気質に関するこの定義は,オルポートAllport,G.W.やキャッテルCattell,R.B.のパーソナリティ理論に受け継がれている。

 またロシアの生理学者パブロフPavlov,I.(1927)は,条件づけ実験の中で見られたイヌの行動観察から,興奮と抑制に関する神経生理学的な個体差として気質を定義した。パブロフの生理学的な気質理論は,アイゼンクEysenck,H.J.(1967)のパーソナリティ理論に継承されている。アイゼンクが提唱するパーソナリティの三つの特性次元のうち,外向性-内向性次元extraversion-introversionは,大脳皮質の興奮と抑制に関する網様体賦活系ascending reticular activating system(ARAS)の個人差によって決定するとしている。神経症傾向の特性次元についても,自律神経系の覚醒レベルの個人差に関係するとしており,直接気質という用語を使用していないものの,アイゼンクのパーソナリティ理論は気質理論の色彩が濃い。アイゼンクの理論を発展させたグレイGray,J.A.(1987)は,動物実験から導出された行動活性化システムbehavioral activation system(BAS),行動抑制システムbehavioral inhibition system(BIS),闘争・逃走システムfight-flight system(FFS)の三つの脳内システムを仮定して,詳細な神経科学的気質理論を展開している。クロニンジャーCloninger,C.R.(1997)のパーソナリティ理論でも,脳内の神経伝達物質と関連づけた四つの気質因子(新奇性追求novelty seeking,損害回避harm avoidance,報酬依存reward dependence,固執persistence)が想定されている。新奇性追求はドーパミンと,損害回避はセロトニンと,報酬依存と固執はノルアドレナリンとそれぞれ関連するとされ,これらの脳内物質に関する遺伝子多型と行動特徴との関連についての分子生物学的な検討も行なわれてきている。以上の研究は,いずれも成人を対象とした気質研究である。

【発達心理学における気質】 発達心理学の領域でも1970年代以降,発達初期の子どもたちの情緒や行動に大きな個人差が見られることが注目されるようになり,気質研究が始まった。小児科医であるブラゼルトンBrazelton,T.B.(1998)は新生児行動評価尺度neonatal behavioral assessment scale(NBAS)を開発し,不快刺激への慣れ,人や物に対する定位反応,覚醒水準,泣きと鎮静,運動制御などの特性について,生後数日目の新生児の個人差の測定を可能にした。トーマスThomas,A.とチェスChess,S.(1986)は,気質を「生得的基盤をもち出生後まもなくから出現し環境の影響によって変化しうる子どもの現象的な行動スタイルbehavioral styleである」と定義し,乳幼児の長期追跡研究から導出した九つの特性次元(活動水準activity level,接近/回避approach/withdrawal,周期性rhythmicity,順応性adaptability,反応閾値threshold,反応の強度intensity,気分の質mood,気の散りやすさdistractibility,注意の範囲と持続性attention span/persistence)と三つの気質類型(取り扱いが難しい子どもdifficult child,手のかからない子どもeasy child,何をするにも時間がかかる子どもslow-to warm-up child)による気質理論を提唱した。ロスバートRothbart,M.(2011)らは,パブロフに端を発する成人の気質理論を継承して,子どもの気質を「反応性reactivity と自己制御性self-regulationについての生物学的基盤をもつ個人差である」と定義し,三つの因子(闊達さsurgency,ネガティブな情緒性negative affectivity,乳児期は定位性/制御性orienting/regulationおよび幼児期・児童期はエフォートフル・コントロールeffortful control)によって測定する尺度を開発している。21世紀に入ると,長い伝統をもつ成人の気質研究と発達心理学での子どもの気質研究との統合が図られるようになり(Molfese,V.J.,Molfese,D.L.,2000),ライフスパンでの気質理論の構築が模索されてきている。

【気質と適応】 気質は環境との適合の良さgoodness of fitによって,個人の適応に影響する。気質理論の立場では,たとえばアタッチメント(愛着)はストレスに対する反応性や耐性,恐れの強さ,鎮静性(なだめられやすさ)などの乳児自身の気質的特徴と,養育者の乳児に対する応答性との相互作用の積み重ねによって形成され,適合が良好ならば安定したアタッチメントが形成され,不良ならば不安定なものになっていくと考える。同様に,児童期以降の問題行動や精神障害は,シャイネスやエフォートフル・コントロールなどの気質的特徴が,ストレスフルな環境と長期間相互作用することにより出現してくると見られている(Rothbart,2011)。 →人格 →性格発達 →類型学
〔坂本 正裕・菅原 ますみ〕

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