This refers to the temperature of air. It is expressed according to the location, such as indoor temperature, outdoor temperature, or temperature in the sky. When simply referring to temperature in meteorological observations, it refers to the air temperature measured outdoors at a height of 1.2 to 1.5 meters above ground. In addition to academic reasons that temperature is necessary to determine the physical state of the air, it is treated as an important environmental factor because the degree of heat or cold has a significant impact on both human life and plant growth. [Masaji Ota] Temperature unitsDegrees C (℃) are usually used, but in some countries degrees F (℃) are used. The degree C scale is based on the freezing point of water at 0℃ and the boiling point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure being 100℃. In degrees F, the freezing point is 32 and the boiling point is 212. Another temperature scale is the Kelvin temperature scale (or absolute temperature scale), written as K (or A). The relationship between degrees C and K is ℃=K-273.15. [Masaji Ota] Temperature measurementMercury thermometers have long been used to measure air temperature. Not only are mercury thermometers simple in structure, small and inexpensive, but they also have little error in readings, making them ideal for everyday use. Mercury thermometers include rod-shaped thermometers with graduations engraved directly on a glass rod, as well as Huth-type thermometers with a double glass tube and plate thermometers (Rutherford-type) with a glass rod attached to a plate. For general measurements, a plate thermometer is sufficient. Mercury freezes at -39°C, so in cold regions where temperatures reach this low, a thermometer containing alcohol instead of mercury is used. The freezing point of ethyl alcohol is -117°C. The easiest way to measure outdoor air temperatures using a mercury thermometer is to hang it in a Stevenson screen. The Stevenson screen protects the thermometer's sensing part from direct sunlight and from rain and snow. The sensing part of the thermometer should be placed 1.2 to 1.5 meters above ground. If you do not have a Stevenson screen, it is best to use a portable ventilated thermometer in which the mercury thermometer is placed in a small metal tube and a small fan is used to blow air through the tube. The thermometers used by the Japan Meteorological Agency for weather observations are platinum resistance thermometers attached to metal ventilator tubes instead of mercury thermometers, and these are set up in outdoor areas to record indoors. In this case, the height of the sensing part is 1.2 to 1.5 meters above ground. A maximum thermometer is useful for finding the maximum temperature within a certain period of time, for example, within a day. This thermometer works similarly to a clinical thermometer; mercury is pushed out of the sensing part when the temperature rises, and does not return to the sensing part when the temperature drops, so the maximum temperature can be found by reading the scale at the end of the mercury thread. To return this thermometer to its original reading, simply shake the thermometer vigorously to lower it, in the same way as you would to lower the reading of a clinical thermometer. A minimum thermometer can also be used to find the minimum temperature within a certain period of time. This has a thin colored glass indicator sealed inside the alcohol thread of an alcohol thermometer; when the temperature drops, the glass indicator is pulled down by the surface tension at one end of the alcohol thread, but when the temperature rises, the indicator is left behind. The minimum thermometer is placed almost horizontally in the Stevenson screen. To return the indicator to its original position, gently tilt it while watching the indicator. To measure the temperature in the upper atmosphere, steel towers are used and platinum resistance thermometers are attached to them. For temperatures at heights that steel towers cannot reach, tethered balloons or radiosondes are used to measure the temperature by attaching temperature sensors such as thermistors. [Masaji Ota] Temperature and altitudeGenerally, the temperature decreases the higher you go. According to the results of measurements of upper atmosphere temperatures using radiosondes, the temperature drops by 0.65°C for every 100 meters you ascend, on average, around the world. However, the temperature in the upper atmosphere changes in a very complex way depending on the day, time, and height. For example, below 100 meters above ground, where human life is closely related, temperature inversions often occur from night to early morning. On the other hand, during the day, there is a tendency for the temperature to drop significantly, meaning that the higher you go, the lower the temperature becomes. This phenomenon is quite different from the average state of a drop of 0.65°C per 100 meters. Also, above 12 kilometers above ground, the stratosphere is in a constant state of inversion, but this height varies from about 10 to 18 kilometers depending on the season and latitude. [Masaji Ota] Ground inversion and upper level inversionAlthough temperature inversion sounds like an abnormal phenomenon, it is not an uncommon phenomenon. In the early morning on a fine day, both in summer and winter, the ground cools and the temperature drops, and the temperature is usually reversed up to an altitude of 100 to 200 meters above the ground. In this case, the inversion starts near the ground, so it is called a ground inversion. Ground inversions occur about 30% of the year, or about 100 days. Ground inversions occur because the ground loses heat through radiation and cools down from night to early morning, so they are also called radiation inversions. On the other hand, the ground is in a state of gradual decrease during the day on a fine day, but an inversion can occur several hundred meters above the ground. In contrast to the former, this is called an upper-level inversion. This upper-level inversion often occurs within a mobile high pressure system, and is also called a subsidence inversion, because it is considered to occur because the air above sinks within the high pressure system. In general, the diffusion of atmospheric dust and other particles is difficult to occur within these inversion layers. The phenomena of ground inversion and upper level inversion affect the way air pollutants are dispersed, and are therefore of interest in terms of pollution control. [Masaji Ota] Temperature changesWhen we look at the results of measuring the temperature at a certain location, we can see that the temperature changes from moment to moment. In general, it is high during the day and low in the early morning. However, when a low pressure system passes in early spring, strong southerly winds blow, causing the temperature to rise significantly at that time. Also, when a high pressure system spreads out in winter and a strong northerly wind blows, the temperature drops significantly. If we average the temperature values measured over a long period of time over a period of many decades by time of day, we can see the pattern of diurnal temperature variation. In Tokyo, for example, the temperature is highest during the day around 1:00 to 2:00 p.m. and lowest in the early morning around 5:00 to 6:00 a.m., although it differs slightly between summer and winter. Next, by averaging the temperature values by month, we can see the annual change from January to December. In Tokyo, the highest temperature is in August (26.7°C) and the lowest in January (4.1°C). The difference is about 23°C. [Masaji Ota] Temperature distributionIf we collect long-term temperature values from weather observation stations around the world, calculate the average temperature in each area in January, and plot it on a map, we can see the distribution of temperatures around the world in January. In the same way, we can find the temperature distribution in July. Looking at these distributions, we can see that in January, low temperature areas tend to appear slightly east of the center of the continent, and in July, high temperature areas tend to appear near the center of the continent. [Masaji Ota] Feeling and temperatureThe sensation of hotness or cold that we feel is mainly influenced by the temperature. Thermometers used to be called thermometers. However, in addition to temperature, wind speed and humidity also have some effect on sensation. For example, in a cold wind, the temperature feels 1°C lower for every 1 meter per second increase in wind speed, and in a hot summer, research has shown that a 10% increase in humidity makes the temperature feel 1°C higher. There is also a term related to sensation: midsummer day (tropical day). A midsummer day is a day when the maximum temperature is over 30°C, a summer day is a day when the maximum temperature is over 25°C, a midwinter day is a day when the maximum temperature is below 0°C, and a winter day is a day when the minimum temperature is below 0°C. In Tokyo, for example, there are an average of 45 midsummer days, 106 summer days, 0 midwinter days, and 28 winter days in a year. In Sapporo, there were 7 midsummer days, 46 summer days, 51 midwinter days, and 139 winter days, while in Naha in the south, there were 78 midsummer days, 197 summer days, 0 midwinter days, and 0 winter days. The discomfort index, which is often heard in summer, is an index that mainly takes into account temperature and some humidity, but taking Tokyo as an example from June to September, there were 74 days that were "slightly hot," 37 days that were "hot," and 1 day that was "unbearably hot," meaning that the number of "hot" days is close to the number of midsummer days. [Masaji Ota] "Weather in Japan" by Takahashi Koichirō (1963, Iwanami Shinsho)" ▽ "Weather Observation Techniques for Practical Applications" revised edition by Ota Masatsugu and Shinohara Taketsugu (1967, Chijin Shokan)" ▽ "Weather in Japan" by Ohno Yoshiteru (1970, Printing Bureau of the Ministry of Finance)" ▽ "Climate Charts of Japan" edited by the Meteorological Agency, 1980 edition (1984, Japan Weather Association)" ▽ "Science Chronology" edited by Tokyo Astronomical Observatory, 1985 edition (1984, Maruzen)" [Reference items] | | |©Shogakukan "> Measurement examples of ground inversion and upper layer inversion Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend |
空気の温度のこと。室内の気温、屋外の気温、上空の気温などのように場所を示して表される。気象観測で単に気温というときは、屋外で、地上1.2~1.5メートルの高さで測った空気の温度をさす。気温は空気の物理的状態を決めるために必要であるという学問的な理由のほかに、寒暖の程度は人間の生活にも植物の生育にも大きな影響をもつので重要な環境要素として取り扱われる。 [大田正次] 気温の単位普通、度C(℃)を用いるが、国によっては度F()が用いられている。度Cの目盛は、1気圧の下で水の氷点を0℃、沸点を100℃としたものである。度Fでは氷点が32、沸点が212となる。温度目盛にはそのほかケルビン温度目盛(または絶対温度目盛)があり、K(またはA)と書く。度CとKとの関係は [大田正次] 気温の測定気温の測定に古くから用いられているのは水銀温度計である。水銀温度計は構造が単純で、小形で安価であるばかりでなく、示度の狂いが少ないので、日常の使用には優れている。水銀温度計にはガラス棒に直接目盛りを刻んだ棒状温度計のほか、ガラス管が二重になったフース型温度計や、板にガラス棒をつけた板付温度計(ルサフォード型)がある。一般の測定用には板付の温度計で十分である。なお水銀は零下39℃で凝固するので、寒地でこのような低温になる所では、水銀のかわりにアルコールの入った温度計を用いる。エチルアルコールの凝固点は零下117℃である。 水銀温度計を用いて屋外の気温を測るには百葉箱(ひゃくようばこ)を用い、その中に吊(つ)り下げるのがいちばん簡単である。百葉箱は温度計の感部に太陽光線が直接当たるのを防ぐほか、雨や雪がかかるのを防ぐ。温度計の感部の位置は地上から測って1.2~1.5メートルに置く。百葉箱を用いない場合には、水銀温度計を小形の金属製の筒に収め、小形のファンで筒の中に風を通す仕組みの携帯用の通風温度計を用いるのがよい。気象庁が気象観測に用いている温度計は、水銀温度計のかわりに白金抵抗温度計を金属製の通風筒に取り付けたもので、これを露場(ろじょう)に設置し、室内で記録する仕組みとなっている。この場合の感部の高さは地上1.2~1.5メートルである。 ある時間内、たとえば1日の間の最高気温を知るためには最高温度計を用いると便利である。この温度計の仕組みは体温計と似ていて、気温が上がるとき感部から押し出された水銀は、気温が下がっても感部に戻らないので、水銀糸の頭の目盛を読めば最高温度がわかる。この温度計の示度を元に戻すには、体温計の示度を下げるときの要領で、温度計を強く振って下げるとよい。またある時間内の最低温度を知るには最低温度計を用いるとよい。これはアルコール温度計のアルコール糸の中に、細い色ガラスの指標を封入したもので、気温が下がるとガラス指標はアルコール糸の一端の表面張力で引き下げられるが、気温が上がると、指標は置き去りにされる仕組みである。最低温度計は百葉箱内にほぼ水平に置く。指標を元に戻すには、指標を見ながら静かに傾けてやればよい。 上空の気温を測るには鉄塔を利用し、白金抵抗温度計などを取り付けて測る。鉄塔の届かない高さの気温は係留気球やラジオゾンデを利用してサーミスターなどの温度センサーを取り付けて測定する。 [大田正次] 気温と高さ気温は上空に昇るほど一般に低くなる。ラジオゾンデなどで上空の気温を測った結果によると、世界中を平均して100メートル昇ると0.65℃低くなる。しかし、日や時刻により、また高さによって上空の気温はかなり複雑な変わり方を示す。たとえば人間生活に関係の深い地上100メートル以下では、夜間から早朝にかけて気温の逆転がよく現れる。一方、日中には著しい気温の逓減(ていげん)、つまり上にいくほど気温が低くなる現象が現れやすい。これは100メートルにつき0.65℃減るという平均的な状態から著しくかけ離れた現象である。また、地上12キロメートル以上になると成層圏となり、つねに逆転状態になるが、この高さは季節や緯度によりおよそ10~18キロメートルくらいに変わる。 [大田正次] 接地逆転と上層逆転気温の逆転は異常現象のような語感をもっているが、けっして珍しい現象ではない。夏冬を通して天気のよい日の早朝には地面が冷えて気温が下がり、地上100~200メートルの高さまで気温が逆転するのが普通である。この場合には逆転が地面付近から始まるので接地逆転という。接地逆転は1年のうち約30%すなわち約100日はおこる。接地逆転は夜間から早朝にかけて地面が放射によって熱を失い冷えるためにおこるので、放射性の逆転ともよばれる。一方、天気のよい日の日中などの地面付近は逓減状態であるが、地上数百メートルから上が逆転していることがある。前者に対してこれを上層逆転とよぶ。この上層逆転は移動性の高気圧内でよく発生し、上空の空気が高気圧内で沈降するためにおこるとみなされるので、沈降性逆転ともよぶ。一般にこれらの逆転層の中では大気中のちりなどの拡散がおこりにくい。接地逆転や上層逆転の現象は大気汚染物質の拡散の仕方を左右するので、公害対策上関心がもたれている。 [大田正次] 気温の変化ある場所で気温を測定した結果をみると、気温は時々刻々に変わっていることがわかる。一般に、日中は高く早朝は低い。しかし春先に低気圧が通り過ぎると、強い南風が吹いてその時刻に気温は著しく上昇する。また冬に高気圧が張り出して強い北風が吹いてくると気温は著しく下がる。何十年もの長い年月に測った気温の値を1日の時刻ごとに平均してみると、気温の日変の型がわかる。東京の例では、夏と冬とでは多少違うが、日中の13~14時ごろもっとも高く、早朝の5~6時ごろがもっとも低い。次に月ごとに気温の値を平均すると、1~12月までの間の年変化を知ることができる。東京では8月(26.7℃)にもっとも高く、1月(4.1℃)にもっとも低い。その差は約23℃である。 [大田正次] 気温の分布全世界の気象観測所の気温の長年の値を集め、1月の各地の平均気温を求めて地図上に記入すると、全世界の1月の気温の分布がわかる。同様にして7月の気温分布を求めることができる。これらの分布をみると、1月には低温域は大陸の中心からやや東寄りに現れ、7月には高温域は大陸の中心付近に現れる傾向がある。 [大田正次] 体感と気温われわれが身体で感じる暑さ寒さの体感は、おもに気温の高低に左右される。温度計のことを昔は寒暖計とよんでいたくらいである。しかし体感には気温のほか、風速や湿度が多少影響する。たとえば、寒風の中では風速が毎秒1メートル増えるごとに気温が1℃だけ低くなったように感じ、夏の暑いときには、湿度が10%高くなると気温も1℃だけ高くなったように感じるという研究もある。体感に関連した用語に真夏日(熱帯日)がある。真夏日はその日の最高気温が30℃以上の日、夏日は最高気温が25℃以上の日、真冬日は最高気温が0℃未満の日、冬日は最低気温が0℃未満の日をいう。東京の例では1年間で真夏日は平均45日、夏日106日、真冬日0日、冬日は28日となる。札幌では真夏日7日、夏日46日、真冬日51日、冬日139日、南の那覇では真夏日78日、夏日197日、真冬日0日、冬日0日となっている。夏になるとよく聞かれる不快指数というのは、気温を主として湿度を多少考慮に入れた指数であるが、6月から9月までの東京を例にとると、「やや暑い」が74日、「暑い」が37日、「暑くてたまらない」が1日となっていて、「暑い」日数が真夏日日数に近いものとなっている。 [大田正次] 『高橋浩一郎著『日本の天気』(1963・岩波新書)』▽『大田正次・篠原武次著『実地応用のための気象観測技術』改訂(1967・地人書館)』▽『大野義輝著『日本のお天気』(1970・大蔵省印刷局)』▽『気象庁編『日本気候図』1980年版(1984・日本気象協会)』▽『東京天文台編『理科年表』1985年版(1984・丸善)』 [参照項目] | | |©Shogakukan"> 接地逆転と上層逆転の測定例 出典 小学館 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について 情報 | 凡例 |
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