Wei, Jin, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties

Japanese: 魏晋南北朝 - ぎしんなんぼくちょう

This refers to the period from the fall of the Later Han dynasty to the unification of the whole country by the Sui dynasty. The chaos at the end of the Later Han dynasty was resolved for the time being with the division of China into three kingdoms: Wei in northern China, Wu in Jiangnan, and Shu in Sichuan. The Jin dynasty (Western Jin), which seized Wei, later succeeded in unifying China, but it soon split into the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms in northern China (which at one time included Sichuan) and the Eastern Jin dynasty based in Jiangnan. Later, the Northern Wei dynasty was unified in northern China, but it split again into two, Eastern Wei → Northern Qi and Western Wei → Northern Zhou. In Jiangnan, four dynasties continued to rise and fall: Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen. The Sui dynasty, which replaced the Northern Zhou, destroyed the Chen dynasty and completed the unification of China, but the 370 years from the founding of the Wei dynasty (220) to the unification of China by the Sui dynasty (589) are called the Wei, Jin, and Southern and Northern Dynasties. Of these, the period or dynasty covering the five states of Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou, or adding the Sui to those, is called the Northern Dynasty, or the period or dynasty covering northern China from the Northern Wei dynasty to the Sui dynasty when China was unified, is called the Southern Dynasty. The period or dynasty covering the four states of Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen, that is, the Jiangnan dynasty during which these four states existed, is called the Southern Dynasty, and the addition of Wu and Eastern Jin to the four states makes it the Six Dynasties.

The characteristics of this period include the existence of countries ruled by ethnic groups other than the Han people, and the remarkable development of powerful clans throughout the country, which had a great influence on the ruling class and the general public. In addition, Himiko, the queen of Yamataikoku, sent an envoy to Wei, and the Five Kings of Wa sought ties with the Southern Dynasty and tried to have their rulership in South Korea recognized.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

Government

In the central government, the three ministries of Shangshu, Zhongshu, and Menka held real political power. The Shangshu was the general central government, while the Zhongshu and Menka ministries were the offices of the emperor's close associates. In the Wei-Jin-Southern Dynasty, Northern Wei, and Northern Qi dynasties, the office of Censor-in-Chief was responsible for monitoring the government and reporting corruption to the emperor, and in the Northern Zhou dynasty, it was called the Chief Registrar. The local government was divided into prefectures, lower rank counties, and lower rank counties, each of which had governors, governors, and governors (or chiefs) who controlled the people. Governors and governors usually held military positions and had military power. Compared to military officials in the prefectures, there were more local nobles among the prefecture officials. These prefectures had strong autonomy. In addition, self-defensive natural villages appeared and became common after the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms period and the Eastern Jin dynasty. They appeared either as villages built on top of the old administrative villages known as ri (villages) or as villages built on new uninhabited land, and were often led by small clan leaders. In the Northern Dynasties, the three-chief system was established as a village control mechanism (outside the capital and its vicinity). The three-chief system later changed to a two-chief system.

The Nine Ranks of Officials Law, established in the Kingdom of Wei in 220 at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, was later implemented throughout the entire territory of the Wei and Western Jin dynasties, and served as the basic method of appointing civil servants until the end of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Although the content changed over time, the law from the mid-Wei period to the Western Jin period was one in which the Da Zhong Zheng of each state listened to the reputation of the village community in each state, that is, the "town opinion," and corresponded the level of that reputation to the rank of the official. The basis of this law was that an official would be appointed (for the first time as an official) to a rank four ranks lower than the rank of the township rank given by the Da Zhong Zheng of the state through the "town opinion" (for example, a person with a township rank of 1st rank would be appointed to a fifth rank official, and a person with a township rank of 9th rank would be appointed to a fourth rank official, etc.). The official rank one is appointed to determines the life of that official.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

Aristocracy

The reason why the Provincial Grand Master listened to the opinions of the local villagers and awarded them local titles was because the local nobles had become educated and had begun to follow Confucian teachings, but this was to guarantee the hereditary political privileges of the upper class of officials (usually nobles) whose livelihood was based in the central government. As a result, the upper class of officials eventually became aristocrats with a hereditary nature. These nobles were scholars, but the scholar-commoner system, which distinguished scholars from commoners, was something that the emperor could not influence. Later, some of the nobles, such as the northern aristocrats of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties, lost all connection with the village society, but in appearance they maintained their status based on the opinions of the local villagers as stated by the Provincial Grand Master. In the case of the Wei, Jin, and Southern Dynasties, the ruling power of the emperor had a dual nature; on the one hand, it was unique as a power in itself, but on the other, it was homogeneous with the trends of the opinions of the local villagers, and this was especially reflected in the personnel affairs of civil servants. The aristocracy of the Wei, Jin and Southern Dynasties emerged from this unique political structure. Later, as the aristocracy became powerless as government officials, during the Liang period the emperor exercised his own power of appointment, creating a new aristocracy in addition to the old one. The two aristocratic classes did not necessarily reconcile, but both were almost wiped out during the turbulent period at the end of the Liang period, and by the Chen period some local powerful clans were becoming aristocrats. These people were also supported by township opinion and became senior government officials.

In the case of the Northern Dynasties, in addition to the Han Chinese aristocracy, there was also an aristocracy of northern ethnic groups (Xianbei). The Han Chinese nobles in northern China finally succeeded in connecting with the central government during the latter half of the reign of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei dynasty. There, an emphasis on village theory, similar to that of the Western Jin dynasty, also emerged. The Northern Qi dynasty generally took a position of respecting the aristocracy, but the Northern Zhou dynasty rejected aristocracy. This was an explosion of energy among the northern ethnic groups, who were not tainted by old Chinese customs. However, throughout the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties, the nobles and nobles often sought coexistence with the people of rural communities by bestowing benefits on them, and there were situations that could not be dismissed as simply exploitation.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

Field system

At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cao Cao established military farms and collected taxes by measuring out the harvest from the farmers. The military farming system expanded and was passed down to the Wei and Western Jin dynasties, and Wu also operated military farms. It was abolished when the Western Jin unified China, and farmers were made ordinary people. This income supported most of the state's military expenses. After unifying China, the Western Jin dynasty implemented the land occupation system, but the amount of land occupation (100 mu for a couple) was the standard amount set by the state and the amount of privately owned land that the state allowed to be owned up to that point, and the amount of land taxed under the tax system (50 mu for one man) was the standard amount for allocated cultivation, and taxed land was allocated military farms and state-owned land. During the turbulent period at the end of the Western Jin dynasty, the land occupation system and tax system disappeared. When the Northern Wei Dynasty's equal-field system was completed, it consisted of land that was provided by the state (kanju fields and eigyotian fields) and land that was recognized as privately owned (eigyotian fields). This was implemented in order to stabilize the lives of the Han people and to encourage the northern peoples to settle in farming, but in later equal-field systems, the target was almost exclusively state-owned land.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

Society and Economy

Among the nobles, powerful clans, and temples, there were many who fled from state control and were under the protection of the state as stateless people, and many who were under the control of the state but were under the control of the nobles and others through the cultivation of land. In addition to the above, powerful people also had guests (who later became bukyo) who were registered in their household registers. These were under the total control of their masters, but were of a higher rank than slaves and had a better status. They differed from slaves in that they shared the profits from farming with their masters.

The development of Jiangnan began during the Later Han Dynasty, mainly due to the quantitative increase in rice fields. In North China, dry land farming (a drought-resistant agricultural technique unique to North China that uses cattle) was almost perfected during this period. North China agriculture at that time can be seen in the oldest surviving comprehensive agricultural book, the Qimin Yaoshu (Work of the People of Qi) written by Jia Sixian of the Northern Wei Dynasty. This book does not take into account the equal land system, but instead focuses on large land ownership.

During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, commerce flourished in major cities, and some commoners became wealthy merchants. Many nobles and powerful families got involved in profit-making businesses, and some temples even ran loan shark businesses. Trade with the Western Regions was carried out during the Northern Wei Dynasty, and Sogdian merchants were active during the Northern Qi Dynasty.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

Military and service system

The military forces of the Three Kingdoms and Western Jin dynasties were hereditary professional soldiers, and were mainly made up of soldiers from military households that had separate family registers from the general public. In the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties, the military household system declined, and soldiers were mainly conscripted from the common people, private soldiers of powerful families, and recruited soldiers. In the Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, and Northern Qi dynasties, they relied on the military power of northern ethnic groups (the Xianbei and related northern ethnic groups), but in the Western Wei dynasty, they moved toward creating soldiers separate from the general public, mainly from the Han people, and this was inherited by the Northern Zhou dynasty and developed into the Fuhei system.

The main types of forced labor were basic military service and local service (miscellaneous labor). When military households were mainly responsible for military service, the general public mainly paid local labor, but when the military household system weakened in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the people from the north were given white status and exempted from forced labor, the people of the south (those in the former Wu region) paid the two types of labor. In the Southern Dynasty, military service gradually came to be covered by recruiting soldiers, and as a result, the basic forced labor became a 20-day annual annual labor, and the miscellaneous labor became a heavier burden.

In the Northern Dynasty, under the Sancho system, a certain number of young men were grouped into one group, and one of them was required to serve in the military full time under the Teihei system. Since military households of northern ethnic origin were the main ones to serve in the military, the general public was required to serve in the Teihei system for a short period of time and miscellaneous duties (similar to miscellaneous duties), but later, in the Sui Dynasty, the Teihei system became a 20-day annual annual service.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

culture

In this period, there was a movement in literature to break away from Confucian morality and carve out its own territory. Emperor Wen of Wei's "Classical Treatises" was a pioneer of this. Wei-Jin-Southern Dynasty literature was influenced by Laozi and Zhuangzi thought, which promoted the discovery of natural beauty and the development of landscape literature. The Wei-Jin "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove" has a Laozi and Zhuangzi-like worldview. The poetry of Tao Yuanming from the Eastern Jin to Song dynasties, the calligraphy of Wang Xizhi from the Eastern Jin dynasty, and the paintings of Gu Kaizhi from the Eastern Jin dynasty are representative of the literature and art of the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties. "Wen Xuan" compiled by Prince Zhaoming of Liang (Xiaotong) was read and loved for a long time, and was also a popular read in Japan during the Heian period. Although the Northern Dynasties made efforts to incorporate traditional Chinese culture, there was no significant progress.

Buddhism flourished after the Five Barbarians and Sixteen Kingdoms period and the Eastern Jin dynasty, and the Chinese translation of Kumarajiva's Buddhist scriptures is well known. Inspired by the rise of Buddhism, Taoism also developed its doctrines and religious organizations. In the Northern Wei dynasty, Kou Qianzhi established the Taoist system by referring to Buddhist doctrines and rituals, and in the Liang dynasty, Tao Hongjing emerged and organized and systematized the Taoist scriptures. Buddhism during this period was laying the foundations for the growth of Buddhism unique to China, while Taoism was laying the foundations for its development during the Tang dynasty. The Buddhist art still found in the Yungang and Dunhuang caves is particularly famous. The large number of documents from the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Sui and Tang dynasties discovered in Dunhuang are important for the study of Buddhism, history, and other fields.

[Shigeaki Ochi]

"Studies on the History of the Six Dynasties: Politics and Society" by Miyagawa Hisashi (1956, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science)" ▽ "Studies on the Nine Ranks of Officials: Prehistory of the Imperial Examinations" by Miyazaki Ichijo (1956, Society of Oriental History)" ▽ "Studies on the History of the Qin, Han, Sui, and Tang Dynasties, Volumes 1 and 2" by Hamaguchi Shigekuni (1966, University of Tokyo Press)" ▽ "The Aristocracy of the Southern Dynasties of the Wei, Jin, and Southern Dynasties" by Ochi Shigeaki (1982, Kenbun Publishing)" ▽ "Iwanami Lectures on World History 5: Ancient Times 5" by Ochi Shigeaki et al. (1970, Iwanami Shoten)" ▽ "Medieval Chinese Society and Community" by Tanigawa Michio (1976, Kokusho Kankokai)

Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties Diagram
©Shogakukan ">

Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties Diagram

Yungang Grottoes No. 20 Ro Seated Buddha
The statue is about 14m tall. On the right is a standing Buddha statue. The front wall of the cave has collapsed, exposing the statue. Part of the World Heritage "Yungang Grottoes" (China, registered in 2001) China Datong ©Shogakukan ">

Yungang Grottoes No. 20 Ro Seated Buddha

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

中国、後漢(ごかん)の滅亡から隋(ずい)の全国統一までの時代をいう。後漢末の混乱は、華北の魏(ぎ)、江南の呉(ご)、四川(しせん)の蜀(しょく)の三国分立の形でいちおう収拾された。魏を奪った晋(しん)（西晋）がのち中国統一に成功するが、やがて華北（一時期四川を含む）の五胡十六国(ごこじゅうろっこく)と、江南に拠(よ)る東晋とに分裂する。のち華北では北魏の統一があり、それがふたたび東魏→北斉と、西魏→北周との二つに分裂する。江南では宋(そう)、斉(せい)、梁(りょう)、陳(ちん)の4王朝が引き続き興亡する。北周にかわった隋が陳を滅ぼして中国統一を完成するが、魏の建国時（220）から隋の中国統一時（589）までの約370年間を魏晋南北朝という。そのうち北魏、東魏、西魏、北斉、北周の5国またはそれに隋を加えた6国、ないし華北を対象として北魏から中国統一時の隋までの時代や王朝を北朝という。宋、斉、梁、陳の4国、すなわち江南を対象としてその4国の存在していた時代や王朝を南朝といい、また4国に呉、東晋を加えて六朝(りくちょう)という。

　この時代の特色としては、漢民族でない他民族が支配者の国があることと、全国的に豪族層が著しく発達し、それが支配者層や民衆に大きい影響を与えたこととがあげられる。なお、魏には邪馬台国(やまたいこく)の女王卑弥呼(ひみこ)が使をやっており、倭(わ)の五王は南朝に交わりを求め、南朝鮮におけるその支配権を認めてもらおうとした。

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官制

中央官界では尚書(しょうしょ)、中書(ちゅうしょ)、門下(もんか)の三省が政治の実権を握った。尚書省は一般的な中央政府であり、中書、門下の二省は天子の側近の役所である。魏晋南朝、北魏、北斉では、官界を監視し官吏の不正を天子に奏弾するものに御史中丞(ぎょしちゅうじょう)があり、北周ではそれを司憲中大夫(しけんちゅうたいふ)といった。地方官界は州(しゅう)、その下の郡(ぐん)、郡の下の県(けん)に分かれており、それぞれ刺史(しし)、太守(たいしゅ)、令(れい)（あるいは長(ちょう)）が置かれ民衆を支配した。刺史、太守は通常軍職を兼ね軍事権をもっていた。州では軍府系統の官に比べると、州系統の官に土着の豪族が多かった。こうした州は自律性が強かった。また、自衛的な自然村落の村が出現し、五胡十六国・東晋以降普遍化した。これは、旧来の行政村落としての里(り)の上にかぶさった形や、新しく無人の土地につくられる形で出現したが、その統率者は小豪族層であることが多かった。北朝では村落支配機構として（都城やその近辺より外に）三長(さんちょう)制を制定した。三長制はのち二長制に変化した。

　後漢末の220年、魏王国内に設けられた九品官人法(きゅうひんかんじんほう)は、のち魏・西晋の全領域に施行され、以後南北朝末まで基本的な文官官吏の登用法として機能した。時期によって内容に変化がみられるところもあるが、魏中期以後西晋時代までのものは、各州の大中正(だいちゅうせい)がそれぞれの州の郷村社会の評判、つまり郷論(きょうろん)を聞き、その程度を官吏の地位と対応させたもので、その基本となるのは、州大中正が郷論によって与えた郷品(きょうひん)の品等より4階低い数字の官品の官職に起家(きか)（初めて官吏となること）する点である（たとえば、郷品一品の者は第五品官に起家し、郷品九品の者は流外第四品等に起家する）。起家の官職はその官吏としての生涯を決定するものである。

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貴族制

州大中正が郷論を聞いて郷品を与えるのは、各地の豪族層が教養を身につけ、儒教的名教を奉ずるようになったことを踏まえたものであるが、それは、中央官界に生活の根拠を置く上流官吏層（通常、豪族）の政治的特権を世襲的に保証しようとするものであった。それだけに上流官吏層はやがて世襲性をもつ貴族層となった。こうした貴族は士人であったが、士人と庶民とを区別した士庶制は天子も左右することはできなかった。のち貴族層のなかには東晋・南朝の北来貴族層のように事実上郷村社会とつながりのなくなったものもいたが、たてまえ上は州大中正のとる郷論を踏まえてその地位を保つ形をとっている。魏晋南朝の場合、天子の支配権力は、権力それ自体としての独自性をもつ反面、郷論の動向に同質性を示し、それをとくに文官人事に現すといった二面性をもっている。魏晋南朝の貴族制はこうした特殊な政治構造のなかに現れたものである。のち貴族層が官吏として無力化したため、梁時代に天子が独自に任命権を行使し、旧来の貴族層のほかに新貴族層をつくりだした。二つの貴族層はかならずしも融和しなかったが、ともに梁末の激動期にほとんど滅び、陳時代になると新たに一部の地方豪族層が貴族化しつつあった。これらもまた郷論に支えられて上級官吏となる形をとっている。

　北朝の場合、漢人貴族層のほかに北方民族（鮮卑(せんぴ)族）出身の貴族層がいた。華北の漢人豪族層は北魏の孝文帝の治世後半期にやっと中央との結び付きに成功した。そこでは西晋と同じような郷論重視も現れた。北斉はいちおう貴族制を尊ぶ立場をとったが、北周では貴族主義を否定した。これは、中国の旧慣に染まっていない北方民族のエネルギーが爆発したものである。ただし、魏晋南北朝を通じ、貴族層、豪族層は郷村社会の人々に対し恩恵を施すことによって共存を図ることが多く、単なる収奪といった観点では割り切れない局面があった。

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田制

後漢末、曹操(そうそう)は屯田を創設し、その収穫を耕作者と量り分ける形で徴収した。屯田経営は拡張しつつ魏、西晋へと受け継がれ、呉もまた屯田経営をしている。それらは西晋の中国統一によって廃止され、耕作者は一般民衆とされた。この収入は国家の軍費の大部分を支えた。西晋では中国統一後、占田制が施行されたが、その占田額（夫婦で100畝(ほ)）は、国家が基準とし、かつそれまでの額の所有を認めた私有田の広さであり、課田制の課田額（丁男1人で50畝）は、割当て耕作の基準の額で、課田は屯田、国有地を割り当てたものである。西晋末の動乱期に占田制、課田制はなくなった。北魏の均田制は、完成した段階では、国有地を支給したもの（還受(かんじゅ)田と永業田）と私有地をそのまま認めたもの（永業田）とからなっている。これは、漢民族の民衆の生活安定と北方民族の農耕定着化との絡み合いにおいて施行されたが、それよりあとの均田制では対象がほぼ国有田に限られるようになった。

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社会・経済

貴族、豪族、寺院には、国家の支配から逃れ無籍者としてその庇護(ひご)を受けている者や、いちおう国家が把握しているけれどもその土地の耕作などによって貴族などの支配力が及んでいる者が多数いた。有力者のもとには、前記のほかに、その戸籍につけられている客（その後身は部曲(ぶきょく)）がいた。これは主人の全面的支配を受けたが、奴婢(ぬひ)よりも上位にあって身分は良である。その農耕の収益を主人と分ける点は奴婢と違っている。

　後漢のころから江南の開発が進んだが、それは主として稲作田の量的増大による。華北ではこの時代に乾地(かんち)農法（華北独自の耐旱(たいかん)農業の技術で、牛を使用する）がほぼ完成した。当時の華北農業は現存の最古の総合的農書、北魏の賈思勰撰(かしきょうせん)『斉民要術(せいみんようじゅつ)』にみえる。これは均田制を考慮に入れないで、大土地所有を頭に置いたものである。

　商業は、南北朝のころになると主要都市ではかなり盛んとなり、庶民で商人として富むものも出ている。貴族、豪族で営利事業に手を出したものも多かったし、寺院のなかには高利貸を営むものもあった。北魏では西域貿易が行われ、北斉ではソグド商人の活躍があった。

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兵制・役制

三国・西晋の国家の軍隊は、世襲的な職業軍人で、一般民衆とは戸籍が別の兵戸の兵を中心とした。東晋・南朝では兵戸制は衰え、庶民からの徴発兵、豪族の私兵、募集兵が中心となった。北魏・東魏・北斉では北方民族（鮮卑族とそれに近い北方系民族）の軍事力に頼ったが、西魏では漢民族を中心として、一般民衆とは別の兵士をつくる方向に進み、それが北周に受け継がれ府兵(ふへい)制に発展した。

　徭役(ようえき)の中心は基本的な軍役と地方的な役（雑役(ざつえき)の類）とである。兵戸がもっぱら軍役を負担していたとき、一般民衆は主として地方的な役を負担し、東晋になって兵戸制が衰えかつ北来民衆が白籍(はくせき)につけられて徭役を免除されると、南人（旧呉の地の人）民衆が二つの役を負担した。南朝になると軍役がしだいに募兵によってまかなわれるようになり、そのため基本の徭役が年間20日の歳役となり、雑役のほうがむしろ大きい負担となった。

　北朝では三長制のもとで、全壮丁を対象に一定人数を1グループとし、そのなかの1人に常時軍役を負担させるという丁兵(ていへい)制が設けられた。北方民族系軍戸が主として軍役を負担するため、一般民衆は期日の短い丁兵の役と雑任（雑役と同質）とを負担したが、のち隋になると丁兵の役は年間20日の歳役となった。

［越智重明］

文化

この時代になると、文学に、儒教道徳から独立し独自の領域を開こうとする動きがみられる。魏の文帝の『典論(てんろん)』はその先駆けをなしている。魏晋南朝文学には老荘(ろうそう)思想の影響があるが、それは自然美の発見、山水文学の発達を促した。魏晋の竹林(ちくりん)の七賢(しちけん)は老荘的な世界観をもつものである。東晋～宋の陶淵明(とうえんめい)の詩、東晋の王羲之(おうぎし)の書、東晋の顧愷之(こがいし)の絵画などは東晋南朝の文学芸術を代表する。梁の昭明太子(しょうめいたいし)（蕭統(しょうとう)）の編した『文選(もんぜん)』は後世長く愛読され、日本の平安朝でも好んで読まれた。北朝では旧来の中国文化を取り入れるのに努力が払われているが、とくに大きい発展はなかった。

　仏教は五胡十六国・東晋以降盛んとなったが、鳩摩羅什(くまらじゅう)の仏典の漢訳はよく知られている。仏教が盛んになるのに刺激されて、道教も教義や教団を整備した。北魏では寇謙之(こうけんし)が仏教の教義儀式を参考にして道教の制度を確立し、梁でも陶弘景(とうこうけい)が出て道教教典の整理と体系化とを行った。この時代の仏教は中国独自の仏教への成長、道教は唐時代の発展の、それぞれ基礎固めをしている。現存の雲崗(うんこう)、敦煌(とんこう)の石窟(せっくつ)の仏教芸術はとくに有名である。敦煌で発見された魏晋南北朝～隋・唐時代の多数の文献は、仏教、歴史などの研究に重要である。

［越智重明］

『宮川尚志著『六朝史研究　政治・社会篇』（1956・日本学術振興会）』▽『宮崎市定著『九品官人法の研究　科挙前史』（1956・東洋史研究会）』▽『浜口重国著『秦漢隋唐史の研究』上下（1966・東京大学出版会）』▽『越智重明著『魏晋南朝の貴族制』（1982・研文出版）』▽『越智重明他著『岩波講座　世界歴史5　古代5』（1970・岩波書店）』▽『谷川道雄著『中国中世社会と共同体』（1976・国書刊行会）』

魏晋南北朝王朝交替図

雲崗石窟第20洞露坐大仏

出典　小学館　日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ)について　情報 | 凡例

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