Counterfeit - gansaku

Japanese: 贋作 - がんさく
Counterfeit - gansaku

Also called a fake or counterfeit. The desire for expensive or rare things runs deep in the human heart. However, because it is difficult to personally own them, people usually find satisfaction in visually appreciating substitutes. Nevertheless, when people overestimate their chances of acquiring such a thing, they fall into the trap set by counterfeiters.

Forgeries can exist for anything that is valuable and rare, but most are made intentionally, and only a few are made by chance. Copies, replicas, and similar works from the same era are sometimes used as forgeries, but they are almost always the exception. The same can be said for sophisticated copies. Forgeries are not made by chance because there must be a forger with a certain level of skill behind them. In other words, forgeries of paintings are made by painters, and forgeries of ceramics by potters, and they are not something that amateurs can do. Of course, the skill of each forger varies, and depending on the difference, some forgeries are obvious at a glance, while others cause debate among experts. In any case, forgeries have existed throughout the history of culture, and in particular forgeries in art are as old as counterfeit gold. However, forgeries before the Renaissance were mainly sculptures, and there were only a few of them. Their numbers began to increase from the 15th century onwards, with the birth of painting and prints, and especially from the 19th century onwards, when the cultural desires of the middle class grew.

At the end of the 19th century, an international art market was established in Europe, and as the buying and selling of art became more active, counterfeits of popular artists suddenly flooded the market, often causing confusion and creating incidents. Numerous counterfeits appeared of great masters of the Renaissance and Baroque after Leonardo da Vinci, and of modern artists such as Cezanne and Van Gogh, drawing museums and experts into a whirlwind. The most numerous of these were Leonardo, Rembrandt, and Van Gogh. The actual number of genuine works by Leonardo has yet to be determined, and the catalogs of Rembrandt and Van Gogh have been re-edited many times, with each revision resulting in changes in the authenticity of the works. In the case of Bruegel, the relationship between his father and his multiple sons is a complication, and in today's research, many of his works are believed to have been created by his sons. The master-disciple relationship between artists who had large workshops was also complex, and a representative example of this is found in Rubens.

The biggest case is that of Vermeer. The forgeries made by Van Meegeren in the 1930s, targeting this 17th century painter, who produced few works and whose reputation was so rapid, are said to be rare in history in terms of their precision and price. However, there are only a few such forgeries on such a scale that have shocked the world. The vast majority of forgeries are technically immature, and only make up for this with superficial brilliance. The difference between the original and the forger is extremely large in terms of both technique and content. The fact that these types of forgeries constantly appear on the market and never disappear shows the infinite depth of human desire. There are very few people who approach art with true love for art.

The same situation has been evident in China and Japan since ancient times. Oriental paintings were essentially created by copying, so there are countless similar works, and the older the work, the more doubtful it becomes whether the surviving work is actually the original. This is why many of the works by Ma Yuan and Muxi, which were brought to Japan in large numbers during the Muromachi period, are considered to be "traditional."

The same can be said for Japanese works from the same period, and there are almost no works by Tensho Shubun that are conclusively genuine. Even for his disciple Sesshu, there is no consensus among experts as to the extent to which his works are genuine. Moving down to the Edo period, there are many problems with works by independent painters such as Ogata Korin, who received high acclaim in the modern era. It is also not easy to limit the scope of genuine works by Katsushika Hokusai, who was as prolific as Rubens and had many disciples. Due to a long-standing habit of not wanting to make too strict a distinction between genuine and counterfeit, Japan has seen many major incidents even in recent years. The fact that such things are particularly prevalent in the field of ceramics is clear from the uproar surrounding the Einin Vase and Sano Kenzan. Forgeries are found everywhere in everyday life, but in many cases their creators are unknown. Even if the crime is discovered, it is difficult to trace the criminal intent, so punishment is rare and the number of counterfeits on the market remains unchanged.

[Shinichi Segi]

[Reference] | Appraisal

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

にせもの、偽作などともいう。高価なものや希少なものに対するあこがれは、人間の心のなかに深くある。しかし、それを個人的に所有することの困難さから、人はその代替品によって、視覚的に鑑賞することで満足するのが普通である。にもかかわらず、自分だけにはその種のものを得るチャンスがあると過信するときに、贋作者の設けた罠(わな)に陥る。

 贋作は、高価で希少なものすべてについて存在しうるが、その大部分は意図的につくられるものであり、偶然そうした作用をするものはきわめて少ない。模写、レプリカ(模造品)、同時代の類似作といったものが贋作として利用されることもなくはないが、ほとんど例外に属する。精巧な複製品にしても同様である。贋作が偶然にできるものでないという意味は、一定の技術をもった贋作者が背後に存在するということにほかならない。つまり、絵画の贋作は画家によって、陶磁器のそれは陶芸家によってつくられるのであり、素人(しろうと)のなしうることではない。もちろん、個々の贋作者の力量に巧拙があり、その差異によって、一見してそれとわかるものもあれば、専門家間の論議を引き起こすようなものもある。いずれにせよ、贋作は文化の歴史とともにあり、とりわけ美術上の贋作は贋金(にせがね)とともに古い。とはいえ、ルネサンス以前の贋作は主として彫刻の類であり、少数であった。その数が増加するのは、絵画や版画が誕生した15世紀以降であり、とくに市民階級の文化的欲求が高まった19世紀以降である。

 19世紀末のヨーロッパでは国際的な美術市場が成立し、美術品の売買が活発になるとともに、人気作家の贋作が急に氾濫(はんらん)し、しばしば混乱を引き起こし、事件を生んだ。レオナルド・ダ・ビンチ以降のルネサンスやバロックの巨匠、そして近代ではセザンヌ、ファン・ゴッホなどに数々の贋作が現れ、美術館や専門家を渦中に引き込んだ。なかでも数多いのはレオナルド、レンブラント、ファン・ゴッホであろう。レオナルドの真作の実数はいまだに確定していないし、レンブラントとファン・ゴッホの総目録は何度も再編集され、そのつど真贋に移動が生じている。ブリューゲルの場合やっかいなのは、父と複数の息子との関係で、今日の研究では、息子の作とされている作品も少なくない。大工房をもった画家の師弟関係も複雑であり、ルーベンスにその代表例がみいだされる。

 事件として最大なのはフェルメールのケースである。寡作であり、それだけに再評価が急激だったこの17世紀の画家にねらいを定めて1930年代にファン・メーヘレンが行った贋作は、精巧さにおいて、また価格において史上まれにみるものといわれている。ただ、世間を震駭(しんがい)させるようなこの規模のものは数えるほどしかない。贋作の圧倒的に多くは技術的に幼稚であり、それを表面的な華麗さで補っているにすぎない。原作者と贋作者との差異は技術的にも内容的にも甚だ大きいといえる。この種のものが絶えず市場に出没し、なくなることがないところに、人間の欲望の無限の深さをうかがうことができる。真の芸術愛をもって美術品に接している人は寥々(りょうりょう)たるものである。

 同じ事態は、中国や日本でも古くから顕著である。東洋画は、基本的に模写によって作画することを習慣としているところから、無数の類同物が存在しており、古い時代の作品になればなるほど、現存するものがはたして原作品であるかどうかが疑われる。室町時代の日本に大量にもたらされた馬遠(ばえん)や牧谿(もっけい)の作品の多くが「伝」とされているのは、そのためである。

 同時期の日本の作品も同様で、天章周文(てんしょうしゅうぶん)の作品で確定的なものは皆無に近い。その弟子といわれる雪舟(せっしゅう)にしても、どこまでが真作であるか、その範囲に関して専門家の見解に一致はない。下って江戸時代に入っても尾形光琳(こうりん)のような独立的な画家で、近代になってから高い評価を受けた画家の作品にも問題が多い。ルーベンス的に多作で弟子の多かった葛飾北斎(かつしかほくさい)の真作をどの範囲に限定するかも容易ではない。真贋の区別をあまり厳密にしたがらない長年の習性によって、近年に至っても数々の大事件が起こっている日本である。その種のものがとくに陶磁器の分野に多いことは、永仁(えいにん)の壺(つぼ)や佐野乾山(けんざん)をめぐる騒動によって明白である。贋作は日常的に至る所にみいだされるが、多くの場合その作者は判明しない。もし判明したとしても犯意の追及が困難であるため、処罰されることも少なく、市場に出回る贋作の数はいっこうに変化しない。

[瀬木慎一]

[参照項目] | 鑑定

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