Fruit gardening - Kajuengei

Japanese: 果樹園芸 - かじゅえんげい

This refers to horticulture that focuses on fruit trees. As humans learned how to cultivate crops and moved away from a hunting and gathering lifestyle to settle down, fruit trees also began to be cultivated. Fruit trees take a considerable amount of time to flower and bear fruit. Cultivation requires careful protection from birds, animals and predators, not only in the seedling stage but also after the trees reach productive age, so horticulture is the perfect practice, literally putting up fences around fields and carefully managing the cultivation. This practice dates back to ancient times.

[Muneo Iizuka]

Fruit Tree Characteristics

[1] Characteristics of woody plants (1) As perennial woody crops, it takes many years to harvest, but the number of years of harvest is also long. The seedling stage is 4-5 years, and the harvest season can be as short as 10 years for peaches or as long as 50 years for mandarin oranges. The results of cultivation management do not appear in a single year, but continue for at least 2 or 3 years. (2) Breeding takes many years. (3) Most fruit trees are genetically impure (more precisely, heterozygous). For this reason, propagation is not by seed (sexual) propagation, but by vegetative (asexual) propagation such as grafting, layering, and cuttings to preserve the characteristics. (4) In graft propagation, the properties of the rootstock can be used in cultivation to promote the fruiting period and improve the quality, and the tree height can be limited and the resistance to diseases and insects of the rootstock can be utilized. Examples include dwarf rootstocks for apples and phylloxera-immune rootstocks for grapes. (5) Viruses and phytoplasmas transmitted by clonal propagation are also transmitted to clonal propagation such as scions, so when propagating by clonal propagation, it is necessary to test the mother tree for non-toxicity of the scion. (6) Many fruit trees are self-sterile (e.g., pears and cherries), and many are dioecious (e.g., kiwifruit and pistachios). Self-sterile trees must be planted with compatible cultivars, and dioecious trees must be planted with male trees.

[2] Economic Characteristics (1) Fruit trees occupy a large area per individual tree, and they also make use of a large amount of space. (2) A large investment of capital is required to establish an orchard. Therefore, it is difficult to replant with other varieties. (3) Fruit is a product with an extremely high added value from labor, and this is where cultivation techniques come into play. (4) Fruit can be used in many ways, and some varieties, such as citrus fruits and bananas, are extremely easy to store and transport. Fruit trees that are easy to store, transport, or process can be cultivated on a large scale.

When establishing an orchard, it is necessary to fully consider the above-mentioned characteristics of fruit trees and pay careful attention to such decisions as selecting the orchard site, preparing the production base, selecting the types and varieties of fruit trees, and deciding on pruning and cultivation methods with a long-term perspective.

[Muneo Iizuka]

History of fruit cultivation in Japan

In Japan, where there are few native fruit species, the Japanese chestnut and Japanese pear have been cultivated, but the variety is extremely limited, and the use of foreign species has been valued since ancient times. The plum and peach trees that appear in the Manyoshu were also introduced from China. The first time that they were introduced with a clear purpose was probably during the reign of Emperor Suinin, when Tajimamori (Nihon Shoki) searched for Tokijiku no Kagunokonomiyaki from Tokoyo no Kuni. The Koshu grape, which was discovered in Yatsushiro County, Kai Province (Iwai Village in the early Meiji period, now the Katsunuma Town area of Koshu City, Yamanashi Prefecture) in 1186 (Bun'ei 2), is a descendant of European grapes and spread during the Kamakura period. By that time, jujubes, yuzu, pomegranates, loquats, and persimmons were also known. Citrus fruits and grapes in particular began to be cultivated as orchards. Furthermore, during the Muromachi, Azuchi and Edo periods, fruits such as kumquats, waringo, apricots, kunenbo (nine-year-old mother), hatankyo, figs and Chinese cherries appeared, and there were production areas for grapes in Kai, chestnuts in Tamba, mandarin oranges in Kishu, persimmons in Yamato, pears in Echigo and peaches in Fushimi. However, it was not until the Meiji period that foreign fruit trees were introduced and cultivated in earnest.

Among these, the Hokkaido Development Agency's Official Gardens (1871), the Naito Shinjuku Experimental Station (1872), the Mita Breeding Station (1874), and other experimental cultivation and distribution of introduced fruit trees were significant, leading to widespread use of apples, American grapes, Suimitsutou, and cherries. In 1902 (Meiji 35), the Horticulture Department of the Agricultural Experiment Station was established, and full-scale testing and research began. Prior to this, the Hokkaido Development Agency's Provisional School, the predecessor of Sapporo Agricultural College, was established in 1872 (Meiji 5), and the Imperial University College of Agriculture (now the University of Tokyo's Faculty of Agriculture) was established in 1890, where student guidance and research were carried out.

As Japan modernized, fruit horticulture also developed gradually, entering the Taisho and Showa periods. In 1941 (Showa 16), when the Pacific War began, the total area under fruit cultivation was 202,000 hectares, and production exceeded 1.4 million tons. However, many orchards were abandoned because staple foods were prioritized during the war, and in the chaotic period after the war, the area was reduced to 61% (1947) and the yield to 47% of the peak. After this period of chaos, as life became more stable, the demand for fruit increased, and the price soared, leading to an increase in production. During this time, the Japan Horticultural Agricultural Cooperative Association (1952) was formed, playing a pioneering role for producers. On the other hand, the Fruit Agriculture Promotion Special Measures Law (1961) was enacted, and with the help of the expansion of universities and research institutes, fruit horticulture in Japan made great strides. As a result, in 1973 (Showa 48), the cultivation area exceeded 423,000 hectares, and the yield exceeded 6.5 million tons. In recent years, due to an increase in imported fruit and an abundant food supply, domestic fruit production has become somewhat surplus, and the yield has gradually decreased, to about 4.1 million tons as of 1999. The main fruit trees are mandarin oranges and apples, with chestnuts, grapes, persimmons, Japanese pears, peaches, summer mandarins, and plums also growing, and the cultivation area is large.

[Muneo Iizuka]

Characteristics of Japanese fruit horticulture

(1) The country's land area is long and narrow from north to south, allowing the cultivation of a wide variety of fruit trees, from those suited to cold climates to those suited to subtropical climates. (2) Breeding and the development of new varieties are active, and a wide variety of citrus varieties have been developed in the northernmost areas of cultivation, and persimmons are also highly diverse, both of which are secondary centers. (3) There are many orchards on sloping land, many of which are unsuitable for large-scale mechanized cultivation, and production costs are high. (4) The total area of fruit cultivation in the country is 295,000 hectares (6.4% of the total cultivated area, 1998), and there are 489,000 fruit farms (1995). However, the average farm size is extremely small, with 87% having less than 1 hectare, and only 3% having more than 2 hectares. Many fruit trees are cultivated on small plots of land within the home. (5) The growing season is hot and humid, leading to the occurrence of many diseases and pests. A great deal of expense and labor is required to prevent disease and pests. (6) Since consumer preferences generally place great importance on taste and appearance, a great deal of effort is expended on improving appearance in particular.

[Muneo Iizuka]

Cultivation management work

In cultivation, the botanical characteristics of the fruit trees, the environmental characteristics of the cultivation field, and the characteristics of the production location are all taken into consideration to carry out the most economical cultivation management that will generate sustainable income.

In fruit cultivation, if there is a good balance between the fruit and the nutrients that nourish it, such as the leaves, branches, trunks, and roots, good quality and adequate yields can be guaranteed every year. To achieve this, it is necessary to maintain an appropriate ratio of carbohydrates (C) and nitrogen (N) in the tree body (C/N). Too much nitrogen leads to active vegetative growth and excessive branch and leaf growth, while too much carbohydrate leads to active reproductive growth and excessive flowering. These physiological adjustments are largely due to plant hormones. In particular, auxin, gibberellin, apsidic acid, cytokinin, etc., and the appropriate metabolism of ethylene are important. In cultivation, techniques are required to properly regulate the physiology of the tree body and to manage it so that it produces an appropriate amount of high-quality fruit every year. Another important aspect of management techniques is to prevent unforeseen weather conditions such as typhoons and droughts, support stable production, and maintain the freshness of harvested fruit before shipping.

Next, the main cultivation management techniques are listed according to the growth history of the fruit trees. During the dormant period, basal fertilization, pruning and trimming are performed. During the flowering period, bud removal to reduce the number of flowers, flower removal, cluster removal, artificial pollination to ensure fruit set, fruit removal to prevent over-ripening, bagging to protect the fruit from diseases, insects and chemical damage and to keep the skin beautiful. During the growing season, pruning, bud removal and branch training to prevent overgrowth and maintain the tree's shape, application of top dressing, prevention of early fruit drop before harvest, pre-harvest bag removal to improve fruit coloring, leaf removal to expose the fruit to sunlight, turning the fruit to promote even coloring, harvesting, sorting, adjustment, storage, shipping, and other tasks that are performed in parallel with these tasks, spraying chemicals as needed, irrigation, undergrowth management, windbreaks, bird protection, and other tasks. Income varies greatly depending on whether or not you are good at these tasks.

In terms of cultivation techniques, a wide range of knowledge is required for infrastructure development, seedling raising, etc. According to the Basic Policy on Fruit Farming published by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in 2000, the guidelines set annual labor hours per 10 ares of mature orchard at 93 hours for 3.4 tons of mandarin oranges, 158 hours for 3.6 tons of apples, and 263 hours for 4.3 tons of pears such as the Nijisseiki, and modernization of cultivation is being promoted.

[Muneo Iizuka]

Trends in major fruit crops around the world

The world's production of fresh fruit excluding olives (1998) was 434.7 million tons, of which Asia accounted for about 40%. Japan produced less than 1%. In terms of production by type, the largest production volumes are oranges (66.21 million tons), bananas (58.62 million tons), grapes (57.40 million tons), and apples (56.06 million tons). In addition to being used as a fruit, grapes are also produced in large quantities in Italy, France, Spain, and other countries for the purpose of making wine.

With the exception of citrus fruits and pineapples, the top countries in the major fruit production rankings include countries in the native regions of each fruit or in neighboring regions, which shows the climatic and historical importance of the native regions in the development of fruit cultivation. Citrus fruits and pineapples are both easy to transport, suitable for processing, and easy to cultivate, making them suitable for economical large-scale cultivation. For this reason, in tropical countries with low labor costs, large land areas, and suitable climates, large plantations can be opened with just the capital. For example, oranges, whose native habitat is the Assam region, traveled from China through the Mediterranean region to the United States, where they formed a major production area in California. Pineapples, whose native habitat is Brazil, have developed greatly in Thailand and the Philippines, along with processing plants, with large capital. The banana industry in Central America is similar, and American capital has made a large inroad. Looking at fruit nuts, almonds and pecans are common in the United States, hazelnuts in Europe, and walnuts and pistachios in Western Asia. The United States is already the world's largest producer of citrus fruits, apples, almonds, and walnuts (including pecans), and when overseas investments in bananas, pineapples, etc. are included, the country has a great influence in fruit horticulture.

[Muneo Iizuka]

"The Fruit Tree Horticulture Encyclopedia, edited by Koichi Sato et al., 2nd revised and supplemented edition (1989, Yokendou)" ▽ "Pocket Horticulture Statistics, edited by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, various annual editions (Agriculture and Forestry Statistics Association)" ▽ "The Fruit Tree Horticulture Compendium, revised edition (1982, Yokendou)" by Akira Kobayashi

[References] | Horticulture | Fruit trees | Orchards | Fruit

Pear orchards as seen in "Edo Meisho Zue"
The cultivation of Japanese pears can already be seen in the "Nihon Shoki" and "Sandai Jitsuroku." By the latter half of the Edo period, there were over 150 varieties, and many new varieties have been created since the Meiji period. The picture shows commercial pear cultivation in the Edo period. The trellis training is a cultivation method unique to Japan. "Edo Meisho Zue," Volume 7, National Diet Library .

Pear orchards as seen in "Edo Meisho Zue"

Iwaimura Vineyard
Iwai Village, Higashi-Yatsushiro County, Yamanashi Prefecture (present-day Katsunuma Town, Koshu City). "Famous Places of Japan" (1900, Meiji 33), National Diet Library .

Iwaimura Vineyard

Source: Shogakukan Encyclopedia Nipponica About Encyclopedia Nipponica Information | Legend

Japanese:

果樹を対象として行う園芸をいう。人類が作物の栽培方法を覚え、狩猟や採集の生活から脱して定住生活に入ると、果樹もまた栽培されるものとなってきた。果樹類は開花、結実に相当の年月を必要とする。栽培にあたっては、幼苗期はもちろん、生産年齢に達してからのちも鳥獣や外敵を防ぎ、行き届いた管理が必要で、園芸という文字どおり畑に柵を巡らし、その中できめ細かな栽培管理を行う営みにもっともふさわしい作物である。この営みは古代より芽生えていた。

［飯塚宗夫］

果樹の特徴

〔1〕木本(もくほん)植物としての特性　(1)永年性の木本作物であるので、収穫までに長年月を要するが、収穫の年数も長い。幼苗期は4～5年で、収穫期はモモのように短くて10余年、ミカンのように長いと50年以上にも及ぶ。栽培管理の成果は単年度で現れるばかりでなく、少なくとも2、3年は継続する。(2)育種に長年月を要する。(3)果樹の多くは遺伝子的には不純（正確にはヘテロという）である。このため、繁殖は実生(みしょう)（有性）繁殖によらず、接木(つぎき)、取木、挿木などの栄養（無性）繁殖によってその形質を保持する。(4)接木繁殖では、台木の性質を栽培に利用して、結果期の促進、品質の向上などを図ったり、また、樹高を制限したり、台木のもつ病虫害抵抗性などを利用することができる。リンゴの矮性(わいせい)台木、ブドウのフィロキセラ免疫台木などはその例である。(5)栄養系によって伝染するウイルスやファイトプラズマは接穂(つぎほ)など栄養系に伝わるので、栄養系による繁殖では、採穂母樹の無毒性の検定が必要である。(6)果樹には自家不結実性をもつものが多く（ナシ、サクランボなど）、また、雌雄異株性のものもしばしばある（キウイフルーツ、ピスタチオなど）。自家不結実性のものでは交配親和性の品種を、雌雄異株性のものでは雄の木を混植する必要がある。

〔2〕経済的特性　(1)果樹は1個体の専有面積が大きいが、空間の利用も大きい。(2)果樹園開設にあたっては、大きな投下資本を必要とする。したがって、他品種への植え替えはむずかしい。(3)果実は労働付加価値のきわめて高い商品で、そこに栽培技術が生きる。(4)果実は多面的利用が可能であるうえに、柑橘(かんきつ)類やバナナのように貯蔵輸送性のきわめて高いものもある。貯蔵輸送性あるいは加工性に富む果樹は、大企業的栽培が可能である。

　果樹園の開設にあたっては、果樹のもつ上記諸特性を十分考慮し、園地の選定、生産基盤の整備、果樹の種類・品種の選定、整枝・栽培方法などの決定について、長期的見通しのもとに万全の注意を払う必要がある。

［飯塚宗夫］

日本の果樹栽培史

果樹類原生種の少ない日本では、日本グリ、日本ナシなど栽培化されてはいるが、その種類はきわめて少なく、古くから外国種の利用が重んぜられた。『万葉集』に現れるスモモやモモも中国から伝わった。導入が明確な目的のもとに行われたのは、垂仁(すいにん)天皇のとき、常世国(とこよのくに)から非時香菓(ときじくのかぐのこのみ)を探してきた田道間守(たじまもり)（『日本書紀』）が初めであろう。1186年（文治2）甲斐(かい)国八代(やつしろ)郡（明治初期の祝村、現在の山梨県甲州市勝沼町地区）で発見された甲州ブドウは、ヨーロッパブドウの血を受け継ぐもので、鎌倉時代に広まった。そのころまでには、ナツメ、ユズ、ザクロ、ビワ、カキなども知られている。とくに柑橘類とブドウは園地として栽培され始めた。さらに室町、安土(あづち)、江戸と続く時代をみると、キンカン、ワリンゴ、アンズ、クネンボ（九年母）、ハタンキョウ、イチジク、中国系サクランボなどが登場し、甲斐のブドウ、丹波(たんば)のクリ、紀州のミカン、大和(やまと)のカキ、越後(えちご)のナシ、伏見(ふしみ)のモモなどの産地がみられたが、本格的な外国果樹の導入と栽培は明治になってからである。

　なかでも開拓使官園（1871）、内藤新宿試験場（1872）、三田(みた)育種場（1874）などで行った導入果樹の試験栽培や配布その他の業績は大きく、リンゴ、アメリカブドウ、スイミツトウ、サクランボなどが広く普及していった。1902年（明治35）には農事試験場園芸部が設置され、本格的な試験、研究も始まった。これより先、1872年（明治5）には札幌農学校の前身である開拓使仮学校が、1890年には帝国大学農科大学（現、東大農学部）が創設され、学生の指導と研究が行われてきた。

　日本の近代化に伴い果樹園芸も徐々にではあるが発展し、大正、昭和に入った。太平洋戦争の始まった1941年（昭和16）には果樹の栽培総面積は20.2万ヘクタール、生産量は140万トンを超えていた。しかし、戦時中は主食が優先されたため廃園するものも多く、戦後の混乱期には、最高時に比べ面積で61％（1947）、収量では47％に減少した。この混乱期を経て、生活が安定してくると、果実の需要は伸び、価格も高騰して生産は増加した。この間に日本園芸農業協同組合連合会（1952）が結成され、生産者の先達的役割を果たし、一方では、果樹農業振興特別措置法（1961）の施行をみ、さらに諸大学や研究機関の充実なども手伝って、日本の果樹園芸は大躍進を遂げた。その結果、1973年（昭和48）の栽培面積は42.3万ヘクタール、収量は650万トンを超えた。近年、輸入果実の増加や豊かな食糧事情も手伝って、国産果樹の生産は過剰ぎみとなり、収量は漸減し、1999年（平成11）現在約410万トンとなっている。主要な果樹はミカン、リンゴを主とし、クリ、ブドウ、カキ、日本ナシ、モモ、ナツミカン、ウメなどで、栽培面積も広い。

［飯塚宗夫］

日本の果樹園芸の特徴

(1)北から南に細長く広がる国土のため、寒冷地向き果樹から亜熱帯果樹まで多品目の栽培ができる。(2)品種改良や新品種の開発が盛んで、柑橘類は栽培北限の産地で多様な変異が生まれ、カキもまた多様性に富み、いずれも二次中心地となっている。(3)傾斜地果樹園が多く、機械化大栽培には不向きの園が多く、生産コストは高い。(4)全国の果樹栽培面積は29.5万ヘクタール（全作付延べ面積の6.4％、1998）、果樹農家は48.9万戸（1995）であるが、平均的農家の経営規模はきわめて小さく、1ヘクタール未満が87％を占め、2ヘクタール以上はわずか3％である。狭い土地を利用して邸内での果樹栽培も多い。(5)発育期は高温多湿のため、病気や害虫の発生が多い。病虫害防除のため、多大の経費と労働力を要する。(6)消費者の嗜好(しこう)は一般的に味と外観に重点が置かれるところから、とくに外観をよくするために費やされる作業量は大きい。

［飯塚宗夫］

栽培管理作業

栽培にあたっては、果樹類のもつ植物的特性と栽培圃場(ほじょう)の環境特性、さらに生産立地の特性とを総合して、永続的に収入をあげるようにもっとも経済的な栽培管理が行われる。

　果樹栽培では、果実とそれを養う葉、枝、幹、根の栄養体との間にほどよいつり合いがとれていると、毎年、品質がよく適当な収量が保証される。これには樹体の炭水化物（C）と窒素（N）の比率（C/N）を適当に保つことが必要で、窒素が多すぎると栄養成長が盛んとなり枝葉が繁茂しすぎ、炭水化物が多すぎると生殖成長が盛んとなり花がつきすぎる。これらの生理的調節は植物ホルモンによるところが大きい。なかでもオーキシン、ジベレリン、アプシジン酸、サイトカイニンなどと、エチレンのほどよい代謝とが重要である。栽培にあたっては、樹体の生理がほどよく調節され、高品質の果実を毎年適当量生産するように管理する技術が必要となる。台風や干魃(かんばつ)など不測の気象環境を防ぎ、安定した生産を支えること、収穫した果実の鮮度を保持し出荷することも、重要な管理技術の一面である。

　次に、主要な栽培管理作業技術を、果樹の生育歴にあわせてあげておく。休眠期には基肥の施用、剪定(せんてい)と整枝、開花期には花数を減らす摘蕾(てきらい)、摘花、摘房、確実に結果させるための人工授粉、なりすぎを防ぐための摘果、病虫害や薬害から果実を保護し果皮を美しく保つための袋かけ、発育盛期には枝の茂りすぎを防ぎ樹姿を保つための緑枝の剪定・芽かきと枝の誘引、追肥の施用、収穫前は早期落果防止、果実の色づけをよくするための収穫前除袋、果実に日光を当てるための摘葉、偏りなく着色を促すために果実の向きを変える玉回し、収穫、選果、調整、貯蔵、出荷、これら諸作業に並行して随時行う薬剤散布、灌水(かんすい)、下草管理、防風、防鳥、その他の作業がある。これら作業の適・不適によって、収入は大きく異なってくる。

　なお栽培技術面では、開園のための基盤整備、育苗などに関しても広い範囲の知識を必要とする。2000年（平成12）に農林水産省によって公表された果樹農業基本方針によると、成園10アール当り1年の労働時間を、ミカンで3.4トン収穫する場合93時間、リンゴ3.6トンで158時間、二十世紀のようなナシ4.3トンで263時間に収まるように目安をたて、栽培の近代化を進めている。

［飯塚宗夫］

世界における主要果樹の動向

オリーブを除いた生鮮果実の全世界の生産量（1998）は4億3470万トンで、うち約40％をアジアが占める。日本産は1％にも満たない。種類別生産量のうち、生産量の多いものはオレンジ（6621万トン）、バナナ（5862万トン）、ブドウ（5740万トン）、リンゴ（5606万トン）である。ブドウは果実としての利用のほか、イタリア、フランス、スペインなどではぶどう酒用にも多く生産されている。

　主要果実生産の上位国は、柑橘類、パイナップルを除き、それぞれの果実の原生地域あるいはそれに隣接する地域の国が含まれており、果樹栽培発展の過程における原生地の風土的、歴史的な重要性がわかる。柑橘類やパイナップルは、いずれも輸送性、加工適性、栽培性などが優れ、経済的大規模栽培に向く。このため、人件費が安く、広い土地があり、しかも気候的に適地をもつ熱帯圏の国では資本さえあれば大農園を開くことができる。たとえばアッサム地方を原種の生育地とするオレンジが中国から地中海域を経て遠くアメリカにも渡り、カリフォルニアに大産地を形成した。ブラジルを原生地とするパイナップルは、タイやフィリピンで大資本のもと、加工場とともに大発展した。中央アメリカにみるバナナ産業も同類で、アメリカ資本の進出が大きい。果樹性ナッツ類をみると、アメリカではアーモンドとペカン、ヨーロッパではヘイゼルナッツ、西アジアではクルミ、ピスタチオなどが多い。アメリカは、柑橘類、リンゴ、アーモンド、クルミ（ペカンを含む）などについてはすでに世界最大の産出国で、バナナ、パイナップルなど海外への投資分も含めると、果樹園芸面での力は大きい。

［飯塚宗夫］

『佐藤公一他編著『果樹園芸大事典』第2次訂正追補（1989・養賢堂）』▽『農林水産省編『ポケット園芸統計』各年版（農林統計協会）』▽『小林章著『果樹園芸大要』改訂版（1982・養賢堂）』

[参照項目] | 園芸 | 果樹 | 果樹園 | 果物

『江戸名所図会』にみるナシ園
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『江戸名所図会』にみるナシ園

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山梨県東八代郡祝村（現在の甲州市勝沼町）。『日本之名勝』（1900年〈明治33〉）国立国会図書館所蔵">

祝村葡萄園

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